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Physiology > Chapter 16 Endocrine > Flashcards

Chapter 16 Endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

What do hormones control and integrate?(5)

A

1) reproduction
2) growth and development
3) maintain electrolyte, water, and energy balance
4) regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
5) mobilization of body defenses

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2
Q

Define endocrinology.

A

The study of hormones and the endocrine organs.

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3
Q

What are the endocrine glands?

A

Endocrine glands are ductless glands, produce hormones and lack ducts.they released their hormone in the surrounding tissue fluid. The endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal gland, pancreas, gonads.

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4
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

The endocrine system influences metabolic activity by means of hormones(chemical messengers) which are secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid. These messengers travel by blood and regulate metabolic fx of other cells in the body. Binding of a hormone to cellular receptors initiates responses that occur after a lag period of seconds or days. But the responses last longer than those induced by the Nervous system.

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5
Q

What is a neuroendocrine organ?

A

The hypothalamus along with its neural functions, produces and releases hormones.

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6
Q

What are autocrines?

A

Short distant signals. Autocrines are chemicals that exert their effects on the same cells that secrete them.

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7
Q

What are Paraceines?

A

Paracrines act locally within the same tissue but affect cell types other than those releasing the paracrine chemicals.

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8
Q

What are the 3 subclasses of hormones?

A

1) Amino acid based: most hormones are Amino acid based. Sizes vary from simple aa, to peptides, to proteins.
2) Steriods: synthesized from cholesterol.of the hormones produced by the major endocrine organs, only gonadal and adrenocortical hormones are steroids.
3) Eicosanoids: include leukotrienes and prostaglandins. Leukotrienes are signaling chemicals that mediate inflammation and some allergic reactions. Prostaglandins have multiple targets and effects ranging from raising blood pressure and increasing uterine contractions of birth,to enhancing blood clotting ,pain ,and inflammation.

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9
Q

What are target cells?

A

Hormones influences the activity of only those tissue cells that have receptors for it.

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10
Q

How does a hormone communicate with its target cell?

A

1) water-soluable hormones(all aa based except thyroid) act on receptors in the plasma membrane. These receptors are usually coupled via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more intracellular second messengers which mediate the target cells response.
2) lipid-soluable(lipid and thyroid hormone) on receptors inside the cell, which directly activate genes.they can pass through the plasma membrane.

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11
Q

What three types of stimuli trigger endocrine glands to manufacture and release their hormones?

A

1) humoral stimuli- simplest endocrine controls. When they detect a decline from normal values, they secrete hormones to balance us again.
2) Neural stimuli- in few cases nerve fibers stimulate hormones. An example is a response to stress. The sympathetic Nervous system stimulates the medulla to release norepinephrine and epinephrine.
3) hormonal stimuli- many endocrine glands release there hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs.

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12
Q

Describe the pituitary gland. Aka hypophysis

A

The size of a Pea and connected to a stalk called the infundibulum. It secretes at least 8 hormones. Has 2 lobes.

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13
Q

What are the 2 lobes of the pituitary gland?

A

1) posterior pituitary-part of the brain. composed of neural tissue. It releases neurohormones ( hormones secreted by neurons) from the hypothalamus. This lobe is a hormone STORAGE area and not a true endocrine gland that manufactures hormones.
2) Anterior Lobe aka adrenohypophysis- composed of glandular tissue.manufactures and releases hormones.

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14
Q

What is the the hypothalamic hypophyseal tract?

A

A nerve bundle that allows its neural connection the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland with the hypothalamus.

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15
Q

What neurons give rise to the hypothalamic hypophyseal tract?

A

This tract arises from neurons in the paraventricular and supra optic nuclei. Paraventricular neurons make oxytocin. And supra optic neurons produce ADH.

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16
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

Strong stimulant of uterine contraction released in high amounts during childbirth in nursing women.The more oxytocin the more contractions.

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17
Q

What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

A

A substance that inhibits or prevents urine formation. Presents wide swings of water balance, helping the body avoid dehydration and water overload. Targets kidney tubule cells to reabsorb water and return it to the bloodstream.drinking water inhibits ADH secretion.

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18
Q

What are osmoreceptors?

A

Hypothalamic neurons that continually monitor the water concentration in our blood. When solutes are too high the Osmoreceptors excite the hypothalamic neurons, which release ADH.

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19
Q

What is ADH?

A

Antidiuretic hormone.

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20
Q

What are diuretics?

A

Diabetic drugs antagonize that affects of ADH and flush water from the body. Diuretics are used to manage some cases of hypertension and edema.

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21
Q

What is the function of the anterior pituitary?

A

Many of the numerous hormones it produces regulate the activity of other endocrine glands.The hypothalamus controls the activity of the anterior pituitary.The hypothalamus owns this bitch.

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22
Q

What are the six anterior pituitary hormones?

A

1) growth hormone(GH , or somatotropin)
2) thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)
3) adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)
4) follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH)
5) Luteinizing hormone(LH)
6) prolactin

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23
Q

Describe growth hormone.

A 
An anabolic( tissue building) hormone that has both metabolic and growth promoting actions.
Stimulated by: GHRH release, which is triggered by low blood levels of GH as well as secondary triggers including hypoglycemia, increases in blood levels of amino acids, low levels of fatty acid's, exercise,and other types of stressors

Inhibited by: GH and IGFs, and by hyperglycemia, hyper lipidemia, obesity, or decreased GHRH release.

Target organ and effects: liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, and other tissues growth promoting effects mediated indirectly by IGFs

Effects of hypo and hyper secretion:
⬇️pituitary dwarfism in children
⬆️gigantism in children, acromegaly in adults.

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24
Q

What are IGFs?

A

Growth promoting proteins called insulin growth factors. IGFs stimulate actions for required growth.

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25
Q

What are the 2 hypothalamic hormones that regulate GH secretion?

A

1) growth hormone releasing hormone(GHRH)-stimulates GH release
2) growth hormone inhibiting hormone(GHIH) aka somatostatin- inhibits GH release.

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26
Q

What is Ghrelin?

A

“Hunger hormone” produced by the stomach stimulates GH release.

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27
Q

Describe thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

Stimulated by: TRH(thyrotropin releasing hormone)

Inhibited by: GHIH and feedback inhibition exerted by thyroid hormones.

Target Oregon and effects: thyroid gland, stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones.

Effects of hypo and hypersecretion:
⬇️cretinism in children and Myxedema in adults
⬆️hyperthyroidism, effects similar to those of graves disease in which antibodies mimic TSH.

28
Q

Describe adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH).

A

Stimulated by: CRH; stimuli that increase CRH release include fever hypoglycemia, and other stressors.

Inhibited by: feedback inhibition exerted by glucocorticoids.

Target Oregon and effects:
Adrenal cortex: promotes release of glucocorticoid and androgens

Effects of hypo and hypersecretion:
⬇️rare
⬆️Cushing disease

29
Q

What is CRH?

A

Corticotropin releasing hormone. It’s a hypothermic hormone that releases ACTH.

30
Q

Which hormones are gonadotropins?

A

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)and Luteinizing hormone(LH).

31
Q

Describe FSH

A

Stimulated by: GnRH(gonadotropin releasing hormone)
Inhibited by: feedback inhibition exerted by estrogen in females and testosterone in males.

Target organ and effects:
Ovaries and testes stimulates gametes (eggs and sperm)

Effects of hypo and hyper secretion:
⬇️failure of sexual maturation
⬆️none

32
Q

Describe LH

A

Stimulated by: GnRH
Inhibited by: edition exerted by estrogen and progesterone in females and testosterone in males.

Target organ and effects:
Triggers ovulation in females and promote synthesis and release of ovarian hormones in women.
In males promotes testosterone production.

Effects of hypo and hyper secretion are the same as FSH.

33
Q

Describe prolactin( PRL)

A

Stimulated by decreased P I H, release enhanced by estrogen, birth control pills, breast-feeding, and dopamine blocking drugs
Inhibited by :PIH (dopamine).an increase in prolactin causes a decrease in dopamine.

Target Oregon and effects:
Breast secretory tissue, promotes lactation.

Effects of hypo and hyper secretion:
⬇️pour milk production in nursing women
⬆️inappropriate milk production in females and impotence in males.

34
Q

Describe the thyroid gland.

A

It’s found in the anterior neck region and is butterfly shaped. It’s the largest pure endocrine gland made up of mostly cuboidal epithelium called follicular cells that produce Thyroglobulin.

35
Q

What is colloid?

A

It’s in the lumen of a thyroid follicle. It consist of thyroglobulin molecules with attached iodine atoms. Thyroid hormone (TH) is derived from this iodinated thyroglobulin.

36
Q

What are parafollicular cells?

A

Another population of endocrine cells in the thyroid gland.they produce calcitonin.

37
Q

What are the 2 iodine containing amine hormones in thyroid hormone?

A

1) thyroxine (T4)-major hormone secreted by thyroid hormone (most produced). Has 4 iodines
2) Triiodothyronine (T3)- more active form it does the work. Has 3 iodines.

38
Q

What effect does TH have on our body? (3)

A

1) increasing basal metabolic rate and body heat production
2) regulating tissue growth and development
3) maintaining blood pressure

39
Q

What are the seven steps of the synthesis of thyroid hormone? Come back later!!!

A

synthesis happens inside the lumen.

1) thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into the follicle lumen.

40
Q

What is hypothyroid?

A

Hypothyroid disorders may result from some thyroid gland defects or from inadequate TSH or TRH release.they also occur when the thyroid gland is removed surgically and when dietary iodine is inadequate
.

41
Q

What is Myxedema?

A

In adults full blown hypothyroid syndrome. Symptoms include low metabolic rate, Feel cold, edema, constipation, lethargy.

42
Q

What is a goiter? (Hypothyroid)

A

A large protruding thyroid gland that occurs if myxedema results from lack of iodine. The follicular cells produce colloid but cannot Iodinate it and make functional hormones.

43
Q

What is cretinism? (Hypothyroid)

A

Severe hypothyroidism in infants. The child is mentally retarded.

44
Q

What is calcitonin?

A

A polypeptide hormone released by parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in response to a rise in blood calcium levels.

45
Q

What is graves disease? (Hyperthyroid)

A

Most common hyperthyroid pathology. A person makes abnormal antibodies directed against thyroid follicular cells. These anti-bodies mimic TSH and continuously stimulate TH release.

46
Q

What is exophthalmos?

A

Eyeballs protrude due to too much protein around the muscle of the eye which causes them to bulge.

47
Q

Where are parathyroid glands?

A

They are hidden in the posterior aspect of the thyroid gland there are usually for parathyroid glands.

48
Q

What is the function of the parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

A

It controls calcium balance in the blood.calcium homeostasis is important for functions like nerve impulses , muscle contractions, and blood clotting.

49
Q

What are the three target organs that PTH stimulates?

A

1) skeleton – it stimulates osteoclasts(bone resorbing cells)to break down bone and take its calcium back to the blood
2) kidneys- enhances reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys
3) intestines – promotes activation of vitamin D, thereby increasing absorption of calcium from food

50
Q

What are the adrenal glands(supra renal)?

A

organs above the kidneys. adrenal glands have adrenal Medulla and adrenal cortex .Each region produces its own set of hormones.

51
Q

What are the three zona(layers) of the adrenal cortex?

A

1) zona glomerulosa- superficial layer produces mineralocorticoid, hormones that help control the balance of minerals and water in the blood
2) zona fasciculata- middle layer mainly produces metabolic hormones called glucocorticoids
3) zona reticularis- innermost layer mainly produces small amounts of gonadalcorticoids.

52
Q

What is the function of mineralocorticoids?

A

It’s an adrenocortical hormone. Mineralocorticoids regulate the electrolyte concentration in extracellular fluid, particularly sodium and potassium.

53
Q

What is aldosterone?

A

It’s the most potent mineralocorticoid. It reduces excretion of sodium at distal kidney tubules.it brings in sodium and water and kicks out potassium.

54
Q

What is the renin-angiotensin – aldosterone mechanism?

A

influences both blood volume and blood pressure by regulating the release of aldosterone and therefore sodium and water reabsorption by the kidneys. All of its effects raise blood pressure.

55
Q

What are juxtaglomerular cells?

A

Cells found in the kidneys. They release renin when stimulated into the blood. Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin II.

56
Q

What are glucocorticoids?

A

The influence the energy metabolism of most body cells and help us resist stressors. They help the body by keeping blood glucose levels constant, and maintain blood pressure by increasing the action of vasoconstrictors.

57
Q

What is the main glucocorticoid hormone?

A 
Cortisol "the stress hormone"it is released by ACTH.Cortisol is a steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones, and is produced by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex within the adrenal gland. It is released in response to stress and low blood glucose.
It functions to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis.
58
Q

What are Gonadocorticoids,

A

It’s an adrenalcortical hormone. they are weak androgens, or male sex hormones.it is produced by the adrenal cortex and contributes to pubic hair development.

59
Q

What is the function of the adrenal Medulla?

A

It’s Chromaffin cells synthesize the catecholamines: epinephrine and norepinephrine.

60
Q

What are the adrenal medullary hormones?

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine. They increased heart rate and metabolic rate, increase blood pressure by promoting vasoconstriction. The effects of hypersecretion causes hypertension.

61
Q

What is the pineal gland?

A

It is found in the diencephalon. It’s secretes melatonin and behaves as an antioxidant.

62
Q

What are some characteristics of the pancreas?

A

The pancreas is a mixed gland composed both endocrine and exocrine gland cells.it is located partially behind the stomach.its islets of Langerhans have alpha cells and beta cells.alpha cells synthesize glucagon and beta cells synthesize insulin.

63
Q

What is the function of glucagon?

A

Glucagon causes the release of glucose into the blood stream. Its main target of glucagon is the liver where it promotes:

1) breakdown of glucogen to glucose(glycogenolysis)
2) synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and from non-carbohydrate molecules(glycogenesis)
3) release of glucose to the blood by the liver cells, causing blood glucose levels to rise.

64
Q

What is the function of insulin?

A

It’s main effect is to lower blood glucose levels, and also influences protein and fat metabolism.

65
Q

What is diabetes mellitus (DM)?

A

Results from either hyposecretion or Hypoactivity of insulin.when insulin is absent the result is type 1 diabetes mellitus. It insulin is presidents, but it’s effects are deficient, the result is type 2 diabetes mellitus. In either case blood glucose levels remain high after a meal because glucose is unable to enter most tissue cells.

Physiology (8 decks)

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