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Biology Year 2 > Chapter 15 - Nervous Coordination > Flashcards

Chapter 15 - Nervous Coordination Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the characteristics of nervous communication as opposed to the hormonal system

A

Fast
Short lived
Localised

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2
Q

Where is the central nervous system

A

Brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

What is meant by the peripheral nervous system

A

All neurones other than central nervous system

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4
Q

What is meant by the semantic nervous system

A

Conscious control

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5
Q

What is meant by autonomic nervous system

A

Unconscious body activity

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6
Q

What is meant by parasympathetic nervous system

A

Slows things down

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7
Q

What is meant by sympathetic nervous system

A

Speeds things up

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8
Q

Write the order that an impulse passes through

A 
Stimulus
Receptor
Sensory neurone
Relay neurone (CNS)
Motor neurone
Effector 
Response
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9
Q

Draw and label the system an impulse passes through

A

In folder

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10
Q

What are the characteristics of a receptor

A
  • It is specific to one type of stimulus
  • It is a cell or protein on the surface of a cell
  • It transforms a stimulus into an electrical nerve impulse
  • Connected to dendrites
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11
Q

What is a sensory neurone made up of

A

A single long sense on

A single short axon

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12
Q

What are the characteristics of a relay neurone

A

It’s within the CNS

Has many short dendrites and axons

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13
Q

Where is a synapse found

A

Between sensory neurone and relay neurone, and relay neurone and motor neurone

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14
Q

What are the characteristics of a motor neurone

A

Many short dendrites
Single long axon
Ends with a neuromuscular junction

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15
Q

What is an effector

A

A muscle or gland that expresses the response

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16
Q

What allows a resting potential to be maintained

A

The sodium-potassium pump

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17
Q

What does the sodium potassium pump do at resting potential

A

Active transport of 3 sodium ions out of neurone and 2 potassium ions in, using ATP

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18
Q

Describe the voltage gated sodium ions channels at resting potential

A

It’s closed so that the membrane is not permeable to sodium ions

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19
Q

Describe the potassium ions channel at resting potential

A

Open so some potassium ions diffuse out, down the electrochemical gradient

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20
Q

In summary, what happens at resting potential

A
  • Sodium-potassium pump allows resting potential to be maintained
  • Active transport of sodium ions out and potassium ions in
  • Some potassium ions diffuse out via potassium ions channels
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21
Q

What happens during generator potential

A
  • A weak stimulus causes some sodium ion channels to open and some sodium ions diffuse in
  • This does not reach threshold and so sodium-potassium pump restores resting potential
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22
Q

What happens when generator potential reaches threshold

A
  • Many voltage gated sodium ion channels open
  • Sodium ions diffuse into axon
  • Positive feedback occurs
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23
Q

What happens during depolarisation

A
  • Sodium ion channels open

- Sodium ions diffuse in

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24
Q

What happens during repolarisation

A
  • Potassium ion channels open
  • Potassium ions diffuse out
  • Voltage gated sodium ion channels close
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25
Q

When does hyperpolarisation occur

A
  • When membrane potential is more negative than resting potential
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26
Q

What happens during hyperpolarisation

A

Sodium ion channels slow to close

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27
Q

What is meant by the all or nothing law

A
  • If a generator potential reaches threshold
  • Triggers an action potential
  • All action potentials are same size
  • A strong stimulus generates more frequent action potential
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28
Q

What is meant by the refractory period

A
  • Made up of the phases after depolarisation (repolarisation and hyperpolarisation)
  • Another action potential can’t be started
  • Makes action potentials discrete (they don’t overlap) and uni-directional (one-way)
29
Q

What causes the refractory period and therefore means that the action potential is uni-directional

A
  • Sodium ions diffuse along the membrane
  • Ahead of an action Potential the neurone is in resting potential
  • Sodium ions trigger threshold
  • Action potential moves along as a wave on depolarisation
  • Means that repolarisation and hyperpolarisation must occur to return back to resting potential
31
Q

What is myelin sheath

A
  • Made of Schwann cells
  • Is am electrical insulator
  • So prevents movement of ions in or out of the neurone and therefore prevents depolarisation
32
Q

What are nodes of ranvier

A
  • Gaps between myelin sheath (diagram in folder if needed)
  • Have lots of sodium and potassium ion channels
  • Depolarisation can only happen at nodes
33
Q

How does saltatory conduction occur

A
  • Due to areas of myelination
  • An action potential jumps between nodes of ranvier
  • Speeding up the transmission of nerve impulses
  • Cytoplasm conducts enough charge to depolarise the next node
34
Q

How can temperature increase the speed of an action potential

A
  • Higher temperature up to 40C
  • Molecules diffuse faster due to more kinetic energy
  • Therefore faster depolarisation and movement of action potential
35
Q

How does the diameters of axons impact the speed of an action potential

A
  • Greater diameter the faster the speed of action potential

- Due to more surface area for ion movement

36
Q

What is a synapse

A

A junction between neurones where there is a chemical transition by neurotransmitters

37
Q

What are the 2 types of neurontransmitter

A

Acetylcholine (ach)

Noradrenaline (nor)

38
Q

What are the 4 adaptations that increase the speed of an action potential

A

Myelination
Saltatory conduction
Temperature
Diameter of axons

39
Q

What are synapses called when the neurones release acetylcholine (ach)

A

Cholinergic synapses

40
Q

What are synapses called when the neurones release noradrenaline (nor)

A

Adrenergenic synapses

41
Q

What is a synaptic cleft

A

The gap between 2 neurones

42
Q

What is the presynaptic neurone

A

The neurone that carries the impulse to the synapse

43
Q

Explain the process of how an impulse crosses a synapse

A
  • Action potential arrives at pre-synaptic knob
  • Voltage gated ion channels open to allow calcium ions to diffuse in
  • Vesicles full of neurotransmitter fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane
  • Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft
  • Neurotransmitter binds with receptors on post-synaptic membrane
  • some sodium ion channels on the post-synaptic membrane open and sodium ions diffuse in off threshold is reached
  • Voltage gated sodium ion channels open
  • Action potential is triggered in post synaptic membrane
  • Enzymes specific to neurotransmitter breaks it down and stops the response
  • Products are re-absorbed into the post-synaptic knob and recycled
44
Q

What makes synapses uni-directional

A
  • Only receptors on post-synaptic membrane
  • Neurotransmitter always released from pre-synaptic knob so diffuses from high to low concentration across synaptic cleft
45
Q

What is meant by synaptic divergence

A

When one pre-synaptic neurone joins many post-synaptic neurones to spread the action potential to more than one part of the body

46
Q

What is meant by synaptic convergence

A

When many pre-synaptic neurones join a single neurone in order to amplify the signal

47
Q

What is spatial semmation

A

When neurotransmitter from multiple neurones combine to trigger an action potential in a post synaptic neurone (synaptic convergence)
Needed because a weak stimulus may only create a few action potentials

48
Q

What is temporal semmation

A

When a stronger stimulus causes more frequent action potentials, releasing more neurotransmitter that add up to trigger an action potential in the post-synaptic membrane
Needed because a single action potential won’t always cause an action potential

49
Q

What is a neuromuscular junction

A

A synapse between a motor neurone and a muscle fibre

50
Q

What are some difference of neuromuscular junctions to normal synapses

A
  • More receptors on post-synaptic membrane

- So an action potential is always generated in the post-synaptic membrane

51
Q

Why do muscles act in antagonistic pairs

A
  • Muscles can only pull

- Having pairs allows them to move a limb in both directions

52
Q

What do ligaments and tendons do

A

Attach bones to bones

Tendons attach bones to muscles (tender)

53
Q

What are some characteristics of skeletal/voluntary muscle

A
  • Lots of mitochondria
  • Long cylindrical cells called muscle fibres
  • Muscle fibres are multinucleate (have many nuclei)
  • Muscle fibres can rain long organelles called myofibrils
  • Myofibrils constrain myofilaments called actin and myosin
54
Q

What is a unit of muscle called

A

A sarcomere

55
Q

What are z lines

A

The edges of a sarcomere

56
Q

What is an M-line

A

The centre of a sarcomere

57
Q

How is myosin respresented

A

Thick

Dark on an electron-micrograph

58
Q

How is actin represented

A

Thin

Light colour in electron micrograph

59
Q

What is the A-band

A

All of myosin including overlapping actin

60
Q

What is the H-zone

A

Unoverlapped myosin

61
Q

What is the I-band

A

Actin only with no overlapping myosin

62
Q

Describe the sliding filament theory of a relaxed muscle

A
  • Actin-myosin bonding site is blocked by tropomyosin
  • Tropomyosin is a protein that’s only role is this
  • Preventing an actinomyosin bridge being formed
63
Q

Describe the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction

A
  • Calcium ions released by an action potential cause tropomyosin to move out the bonding site
  • Allows actinomyosin bridge to form
  • Calcium ions also activate ATPase so ATP can be broken down
  • ATP can be used to change shape/angle of myosin heads to enable a power stroke (this continues aslong as binding site is open from calcium)
  • ATP also used to detach myosin head from binding site, cause a recovery stroke (return myosin head to starting position) and re-absorb calcium ions into sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport
64
Q

What happens to a sarcomere, I-band, H-zone and A-band during contraction

A

First 3 shorten
A-band stays the same

It H-zone disappears there is full contraction

65
Q

What is the order of the fastest to slowest way for muscles to create ATP

A

1) Phosphocreatine
2) Anaerobic respiration
3) Aerobic respiration

66
Q

Describe how phosphocreatine causes muscle contraction and explain the characteristics of this

A
  • Phosphate group from PCr is added to ADP for ATP
  • Short and simple reaction (fastest way to make ATP)
  • PCr stores are used up quickly as it is used for high intensity exercises for a short duration
  • It is anaerobic
  • It is alactic (doesn’t produce lactic acid)
67
Q

Describe how anaerobic respiration creates ATP and the characteristics of this

A
  • 2 ATP made by glycolysis
  • Pyruvate and lactate causes muscle fatigue
  • Short duration
  • High intensity
68
Q

Describe how aerobic respiration creates ATP and characteristics of this

A
  • Oxidative phosphorylation creates lots of ATP
  • It is slow and there are many reactions
  • There are no harmful waste products
69
Q

List characteristics of slow and fast twitch muscle fibres

A

Slow
- Contract slowly
- Relax slowly
- Low force of contraction
- Resistant to fatigue
- Respire aerobically (no waste products)
- Have lots of mitochondria, blood vessels and myoglobin (red)
- Little anaerobic respiration so low intensity and long duration
Fast
- All opposite

70
Q

What is the postsynaptic neurone

A

The neurone that carries the impulse away from the synapse

Biology Year 2 (10 decks)

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