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anatomy and physiology exam 4 > chapter 15 & 16- neural integration > Flashcards

chapter 15 & 16- neural integration Flashcards

sensory pathways, somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system & higher-order functions

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1
Q

the sensation of what your skeletal muscles are doing to the position of your body, where your appendages are in space, is called what?

A

proprioception

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2
Q

a stimulus is transduced by a receptor into a sensation on sensory neurons but
only becomes a what when you have conscious awareness of he sensation?

A

perception

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3
Q

what is the area of your body or skin monitored by a single sensory receptor?

A

receptive field

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4
Q

Tonic receptors are always active and just change the rate of signaling to monitor
background levels whereas what receptors turn on and off in response to a stimulus to monitor the intensity rate of change?

A

phasic

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5
Q

what is the reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus?

A

adapation

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6
Q

cyclo-oxygenase converts arachidonic into what then which binds to and activates nociceptors?

A

prostaglandins

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7
Q

the mechanoreceptor that specifically monitors hair movement is the what?

A

root hair plexus

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8
Q

proprioceptors include what, Golgi tendon organs and joint capsule receptors?

A

muscle spindles

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9
Q

the structure or shape of a baroreceptor is a what?

A

free nerve ending

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10
Q

where is the cell body (soma) located for a first order neuron in a somatic
sensory pathway that is monitoring your arm?

A

dorsal root ganglion

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11
Q

approximately how much of the somatic sensory information leaves the thalamus to be processed in the primary somatosensory cortex?

A

~1%

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12
Q

in the visceral sensory pathways, the interceptors transmit the information to the what of the medulla oblongata for relay to brainstem & diencephalon?

A

solitary nucleus

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13
Q

what are the effectors of the somatic nervous system?

A

skeletal muscles

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14
Q

the cerebellum and the basal nuclei of the cerebrum are responsible for controlling what activities?

A

coordination, balance & fine-tuning of skeletal muscle movements

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15
Q

what is the condition of temporary bouts of uncontrolled or chaotic neuron activity in the brain that blocks the processing of normal messages?

A

epilepsy

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16
Q

the cell body (soma) of the visceral motor neurons is housed where?

A

hypothalamus

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17
Q

both divisions of the autonomic nervous system innervate the heart, what division elevates the heart rate whereas the what decreases the heart rate?

A

sympathetic, parasympathetic

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18
Q

alpha 2 and beta 2 receptors tend to provide a what kind of effect on the effector at the adrenergic synapse?

A

inhibitory

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19
Q

~75% of parasympathetic innervation is carried on what nerve?

A

vagus nerve/cranial nerve X (#10)

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20
Q

the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory is called?

A

memory consolidation

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21
Q

the loss of memories of past events is called?

A

retrograde amnesia

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22
Q

during what sleep, the person is relaxed with minimal activity in the
cerebral cortex?

A

deep

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23
Q

what is a condition where a person stops breathing
during sleep

A

sleep apnea

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24
Q

activation of the cerebral cortex for someone to wake up is the what system in the brainstem which operates by a reverberation loop to keep people awake?

A

reticular activating system

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25
Q

the brain will shrink as someone ages; which division specifically?

A

cerebrum

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26
Q

neural integration:

A

CNS (higher-order function)
-> <- PNS <- afferent system (sensory) -> efferent system (motor)

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27
Q

afferent system

A

sensory receptors -> sensory pathways ->
1. somatic sensory info
-sensory cortex of cerebrum
-cerebellum
2. visceral sensory info
-reflex centers in brainstem
-reflex centers in diencephalon

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28
Q

general senses (sense receptors)

A

-temp, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception
-simple receptors located anywhere on body

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29
Q

special senses (sense receptors)

A

-olfaction, vision, gustation, hearing, equilibrium
-complex receptors located in specialized sense organs
-specificity is due to structure of receptor
-simplest receptors are dendrites (free nerve endings), least specific

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30
Q

transduction

A

conversion of environmental
stimulus into action potential by sensory receptor

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31
Q

sensation

A

the sense info; action potentials

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32
Q

perception

A

-conscious awareness of sensation
-receptors specific for particular type of stimulus

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33
Q

receptive field

A

area monitored by single
receptor (e.g. touch: arm vs. fingertip)

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34
Q

labeled line

A

-link between receptor and
processing site in CNS
-stimulation anywhere on labeled line will produce same perception (phantom
limb)

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35
Q

stimulus -> receptor -> transduction ->:

A

action potential -> sensation -> -> CNS perception

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36
Q

tonic receptors

A

-always active
-signal at different rate when stimulated
-monitor background levels

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37
Q

phasic receptors

A

-activated by stimulus
-monitor intensity and rate of change of stimulus

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38
Q

adaptation

A

reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus

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39
Q

peripheral adaptation

A

-reduction in receptor activity
-phasic -> fast adapting
-tonic -> slow or non-adapting

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40
Q

central adaption

A

-inhibition of nuclei along labeled line
-not all pathways will adapt

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41
Q

four types of general sensory receptors:

A
  1. pain = nociceptor
  2. temperature = thermoreceptor
  3. physical = mechanoreceptor
  4. chemicals = chemoreceptor
    -all can be found in both somatic (exteroceptors) & visceral (interoceptors)
    locations except: proprioceptors (a mechanoreceptor) are somatic only
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42
Q

nociceptors (general sensory receptors)

A

-detect pain
-common in skin, joint capsules, periosteum & walls of blood vessels
-rare in deep tissue & visceral organs
-consist of free nerve endings with large receptor fields
-tonic receptors with no peripheral adaptation
-pain levels are modulated by endorphins which inhibit CNS function

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43
Q

mode of action for nociceptors (general sensory receptors)

A
  1. injured cells release arachidonic acid
  2. arachidonic acid is converted into prostaglandins by interstitial enzyme cyclo-oxygenase
  3. prostaglandins activate nociceptors (many pain medications like aspirin function to inhibit cyclo-oxygenase)
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44
Q

what happens when nociceptors are transduced?

A

-once transduced pain sensations are carried on either type A or type C fibers/axons:
-type A = fast pain; stab or cut; triggers defensive reflexes
-type C = slow pain, aching pain

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45
Q

thermoreceptors

A

-detect temp
-found in skin, skeletal muscle, liver & hypothalamus
-consist of free nerve endings
-phasic receptors that adapt easily

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46
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

detect membrane distortion

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47
Q

tactile receptor (mechonreceptor)

A

detect touch, pressure & vibration on skin

48
Q

free nerve endings (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

A

-detect touch on skin
-tonic receptors with small receptor fields

49
Q

root hair plexus with nerve endings (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

A

-detect hair movement
-phasic receptors, adapt quickly

50
Q

tactile discs/Merkel’s discs (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

A

-detect fine touch
-extremely sensitive
-whole cell tonic receptors

51
Q

tactile corpuscles/Meissner’s corpuscles (tactile receptor
-> mechanoreceptor)

A

-detect fine touch & vibration
-larger receptor structure
-phasic receptors, adapt rapidly

52
Q

lamellated corpuscles/Pacinian corpuscles (tactile receptor
-> mechanoreceptor)

A

-detect deep pressure
-larger multi-layer receptor
-phasic receptor, adapt rapidly

53
Q

Bulbous corpuscles/Ruffini corpuscles (tactile receptor
-> mechanoreceptor)

A

-detect pressure & distortion
-large tonic receptors, no adaptation

54
Q

proprioceptors (mechanoreceptors)

A

-detect positions of joints & muscles
-tonic receptors, don’t adapt, complex

55
Q

muscle spindles (proprioceptors -> mechanoreceptors)

A

-modified skeletal muscle cells
-monitor skeletal muscle length

56
Q

Golgi tendon organs (proprioceptors -> mechanoreceptors)

A

-dendrites around collagen fibers at the muscle-tendon junction
-monitor skeletal muscle tension

57
Q

joint capsule receptor (proprioceptors -> mechanoreceptors)

A

-monitor pressure, tension & movement in the joint

58
Q

baroreceptors (mechanoreceptors)

A

-detect pressure changes
-found in elastic tissue of blood vessels & organs of digestive, reproductive & urinary tracts
-consists of free nerve endings
-phasic receptors, adapt rapidly

59
Q

chemoreceptors

A

-detect changes in concentration of specific chemicals or compounds (pH, CO2)
-found in respiratory centers of brain & large arteries
-phasic receptors, adapt rapidly

60
Q

somatic sensory pathways

A

-consist of two or three neurons
-only ~1% of somatic sensory info reaches cerebrum (major changes only,(“background” is filtered)
-LSD interferes with sensory
damping/filtering = sensory overload
-all sensory info undergoes decussation in spine before reaching target in CNS

61
Q

first-order neuron (somatic sensory pathways)

A

-sensory neuron
-connects from receptor to CNS
-cell body is in dorsal root ganglion/cranial nerve ganglion

62
Q

second-order neuron (somatic sensory pathways)

A

-interneuron (stimulated by first order)
-located in spinal cord or brain stem
-subconscious processing of info

63
Q

third-order neuron (somatic sensory pathways)

A

-located in thalamus
-relays info to primary somatosensory cortex of cerebrum for conscious
awareness (perception)

64
Q

sensory homunculus

A

a map along the cerebral cortex of where each part of the body is processed

65
Q

visceral sensory pathways

A

-contain interoceptors
-only 1st & 2nd order neurons

66
Q

interoceptors (visceral sensory pathways)

A

transmit info to solitary nucleus of medulla oblongata for relay to visceral
centers in brainstem and diencephalon (no
perception)

67
Q

efferent division

A

-conscious and subconscious motor centers in
brain -> motor pathways ->
1. somatic nervous system -> skeletal muscles
2. autonomic nervous system -> visceral effectors (smooth & cardiac muscle, glands, adipose)

68
Q

somatic nervous system

A

-motor control of skeletal muscle
-consists of two neurons: upper motor & lower motor

69
Q

upper motor neuron (somatic nervous system)

A

-has soma in CNS processing center:
a. primary motor cortex of cerebrum (voluntary control)
b. cerebrum, diencephalon, and brainstem (subconscious control: reflex)
c. basal nuclei of cerebrum &
cerebellum (coordination,
balance, fine-tuning)

70
Q

lower motor neuron (somatic nervous system)

A

-soma in brain stem or spinal cord
-links to skeletal muscle motor unit

71
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

-jittery movements: lack fine tuning of motor
-results from degeneration of dopamine neurons of substantia nigra (inhibits basal nuclei)
-overactive basal nuclei = “ticks”

72
Q

Amylotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

A

-degeneration of motor neurons in CNS
-causes muscle atrophy and death

73
Q

epilepsy

A

-1/25 people
-wide range in condition: absence seizures (blank) to grand mal seizures (convulsions, unconscious)
-uncontrolled/chaotic neuron activity in brain: blocks normal messages

74
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

-motor control of visceral effectors
-two subdivisions
-involves three neurons:
1. visceral motor nuclei in hypothalamus to autonomic nuclei in CNS
2. autonomic nuclei to autonomic ganglia in PNS
3. autonomic ganglia to visceral effector

75
Q

sympathetic & parasympathetic of the autonomic nervous system:

A
  1. sympathetic = “fight or flight” (“s” for “stress”)
  2. parasympathetic = “rest and digest” (“p” for “peace”)
    -typically oppose each other on same effector
    -some effectors innervated by only one:
    -blood vessels and sweat glands: sympathetic only
    -smooth muscle of eye:
    parasympathetic only
76
Q

sympathetic division

A

-prepares body for heightened somatic activity
-ganglia: located near spinal cord & adrenal medulla
-releases epinephrine and
norepinephrine as hormones in blood to controls effectors body-wide at once (endocrine function)

77
Q

sympathetic activation results:

A

-increased alertness
-insensitivity to pain
-elevation in BP, heart, respiratory rate
-elevation in muscle tone
-mobilization of energy reserves
-secretion from eccrine sudoriferous glands (sweat glands

78
Q

neurotransmitters involved in the sympathetic division of ANS

A
  1. preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine
    (cholinergic synapse) -> EPSP on ganglionic neuron
    -directly open ion channel
    -fast-acting, short-lived
  2. Ganglionic neurons / postganglionic fibers
    release norepinephrine at
    effector (adrenergic synapse)
79
Q

what does the result of a neurotransmiter in the sympathetic division depend on?

A

-result depends on type of receptor:
1. a1 and b1 receptors
2. a2 and b2 receptors
-G protein -> second messengers
-slow-acting but long-lasting

80
Q

a1 and b1 receptors

A

excitatory/stimulatory to effector

81
Q

a2 and b2 receptors

A

inhibitory, (beta-blockers: block b1 receptors )

82
Q

parasympathetic division

A

-stimulates visceral activity
-maintains homeostasis
-ganglia located in or near effector
-vagus nerve carries 75% of parasympathetic innervations

83
Q

parasympathetic activation results:

A

-constriction of pupils
-secretion by digestive glands
-secretion of hormones for nutrient uptake
-sexual arousal
-activation of digestive tract
-defecation and urination
-constriction of respiratory pathways
-reduction in heart rate

84
Q

neurotransmitters involved in the parasympathetic division of ANS

A

-all release Ach: all cholinergic synapses
-effects quick, localized, short-lived
-type of effect depends on the receptor:
1. Nicotinic receptor
2. Muscarinic receptor

85
Q

muscarinic receptor

A

inhibitory or excitatory, depending on the target cell

86
Q

nicotinic receptor

A

excitatory effect on target

87
Q

higher order function

A
  1. involve cerebral cortex
  2. involve both conscious & subconscious processing
  3. are not part of genetic wiring (reflex): can be modified (ex: memory & consciousness
88
Q

memory

A

storage and retrieval of info

89
Q

fact memories

A

specific bits of info

90
Q

skill memories

A

learned motor behaviors

91
Q

short term memory (STM)

A

-primary/working memory
-rapid recall but short retention
-store 7-8 bits of info at one time
-STM can be converted to long-term memory for more permanent storage

92
Q

memory consolidation

A

-STM -> LTM
-performed by hippocampus
-depends on:
1. emotional state
2. rehearsal
3. association
4. automatic memory

93
Q

long term memory (LTM)

A

-infinite info
-can be stored for lifetime
-secondary memories: fade with time, can be difficult to recall much later
-tertiary memories
-LTMs are broken into parts to store in appropriate cerebral cortex (ex: visual, olfactory)

94
Q

tertiary memories

A

part of one’s consciousness (ex:name)

95
Q

mechanism of memory storage is not clearly
understood but involves:

A
  1. new mRNA and protein synthesis in neurons involved
  2. change of shape of dendritic spines
  3. change in size and number of synaptic terminals
  4. release of more neurotransmitters
96
Q

amnesia

A

loss of memory, due to disease or trauma of hippocampus & amygdala

97
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

lose memories of the past
events, remember now -> forward

98
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

unable to store new
memories, only remember past

99
Q

conscious

A

aware of external stimuli

100
Q

unconscious

A

range of unawareness:
drowsy -> -> -> -> -> brain dead

101
Q

sleep

A

partial unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused with stimuli

102
Q

deep sleep

A

-relaxed state
-heart and respiratory rates decreased
-minimal activity in cerebral cortex

103
Q

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

A

-active, dreaming state
-cerebral cortex as active/ more active than in a conscious state
-but little reaction to outside stimuli
-skeletal muscles inhibited

104
Q

sleep:

A

-alternate between deep and REM sleep throughout sleep period
-sleep required for life, but not clear why
-lack of sleep leads to serious disturbance in mental function
-during sleep protein synthesis in neurons
increases: sleep may be used to repair & recharge neural tissue

105
Q

narcolepsy

A

-condition where person lapses
abruptly into sleep for~15min
-usually follows pleasant event
-cause unknown
-sufferers show reduced levels of REM sleep at night

106
Q

sleep apnea

A

-person stops breathing until
hypoxia (lack of O2) wakes them
-hypoxic wake response ability declines with age or respiratory illness

107
Q

arousal:

A

-requires reticular activating system (RAS)
-RAS located in brainstem, provides consciousness
-internal clock in suprachiasmatic nucleus of
hypothalamus sets normal sleep-wake cycle

108
Q

arousal mechanism:

A

-stimulation of RAS -> activation of cerebral cortex
-positive feedback (reverberation) on RAS
maintains consciousness after initial stimulus
-over time RAS becomes less responsive = sleepy feeling

109
Q

age-related changes

A

-decrease in brain size & weight (cerebrum)
-decrease in # of neurons
-decrease in blood flow to brain (increased chance of stroke)
-decrease in # of synapses
-decrease in neurotransmitter production
-accumulation of deposits

110
Q

accumulation of deposits (age-related change)

A

a. inside cells:
-lipofuscin
-neurofibrillary tangles
b. extracellular
-plaques
-amyloid proteins
-all forms of deposits affect processing & memory ability, motor speed & sensory
sensitivity

111
Q

lipofuscin (accumulation deposit)

A

granular pigment in cells

112
Q

neurofibrillary tangles (accumulation deposit)

A

packed neurofibrils in cells

113
Q

plaques (accumulation deposit)

A

collections of fibrillar proteins entangling abnormal cell processes extracellular

114
Q

amyloid proteins (accumulation deposit)

A

normal proteins misfolded become sticky extracellular

115
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

-loss of higher-order functions
-occurs in 15% over 65 years
-progressive, untreatable
-due to reduction in Ach levels & accumulation of beta-amyloid peptide
(plaques and tangles)
-current treatments block Ach breakdown

116
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

-genetic, middle age onset
-accumulation of Huntington protein kills neurons of basal nuclei & cerebral
cortex -> ticks, cognitive dysfunction
-progressive and fatal
(onset -> death in ~15 years)

anatomy and physiology exam 4 (5 decks)

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