chapter 15 & 16- neural integration

Question 1

the sensation of what your skeletal muscles are doing to the position of your body, where your appendages are in space, is called what?

Answer 1

proprioception

Question 2

a stimulus is transduced by a receptor into a sensation on sensory neurons but
only becomes a what when you have conscious awareness of he sensation?

Answer 2

perception

Question 3

what is the area of your body or skin monitored by a single sensory receptor?

Answer 3

receptive field

Question 4

Tonic receptors are always active and just change the rate of signaling to monitor
background levels whereas what receptors turn on and off in response to a stimulus to monitor the intensity rate of change?

Answer 4

phasic

Question 5

what is the reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus?

Answer 5

adapation

Question 6

cyclo-oxygenase converts arachidonic into what then which binds to and activates nociceptors?

Answer 6

prostaglandins

Question 7

the mechanoreceptor that specifically monitors hair movement is the what?

Answer 7

root hair plexus

Question 8

proprioceptors include what, Golgi tendon organs and joint capsule receptors?

Answer 8

muscle spindles

Question 9

the structure or shape of a baroreceptor is a what?

Answer 9

free nerve ending

Question 10

where is the cell body (soma) located for a first order neuron in a somatic
sensory pathway that is monitoring your arm?

Answer 10

dorsal root ganglion

Question 11

approximately how much of the somatic sensory information leaves the thalamus to be processed in the primary somatosensory cortex?

Answer 11

~1%

Question 12

in the visceral sensory pathways, the interceptors transmit the information to the what of the medulla oblongata for relay to brainstem & diencephalon?

Answer 12

solitary nucleus

Question 13

what are the effectors of the somatic nervous system?

Answer 13

skeletal muscles

Question 14

the cerebellum and the basal nuclei of the cerebrum are responsible for controlling what activities?

Answer 14

coordination, balance & fine-tuning of skeletal muscle movements

Question 15

what is the condition of temporary bouts of uncontrolled or chaotic neuron activity in the brain that blocks the processing of normal messages?

Answer 15

epilepsy

Question 16

the cell body (soma) of the visceral motor neurons is housed where?

Answer 16

hypothalamus

Question 17

both divisions of the autonomic nervous system innervate the heart, what division elevates the heart rate whereas the what decreases the heart rate?

Answer 17

sympathetic, parasympathetic

Question 18

alpha 2 and beta 2 receptors tend to provide a what kind of effect on the effector at the adrenergic synapse?

Answer 18

inhibitory

Question 19

~75% of parasympathetic innervation is carried on what nerve?

Answer 19

vagus nerve/cranial nerve X (#10)

Question 20

the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory is called?

Answer 20

memory consolidation

Question 21

the loss of memories of past events is called?

Answer 21

retrograde amnesia

Question 22

during what sleep, the person is relaxed with minimal activity in the
cerebral cortex?

Answer 22

deep

Question 23

what is a condition where a person stops breathing
during sleep

Answer 23

sleep apnea

Question 24

activation of the cerebral cortex for someone to wake up is the what system in the brainstem which operates by a reverberation loop to keep people awake?

Answer 24

reticular activating system

Question 25

the brain will shrink as someone ages; which division specifically?

Answer 25

cerebrum

Question 26

neural integration:

Answer 26

CNS (higher-order function) -> <- PNS <- afferent system (sensory) -> efferent system (motor)

Question 27

afferent system

Answer 27

sensory receptors -> sensory pathways -> 1. somatic sensory info -sensory cortex of cerebrum -cerebellum 2. visceral sensory info -reflex centers in brainstem -reflex centers in diencephalon

Question 28

general senses (sense receptors)

Answer 28

-temp, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception -simple receptors located anywhere on body

Question 29

special senses (sense receptors)

Answer 29

-olfaction, vision, gustation, hearing, equilibrium -complex receptors located in specialized sense organs -specificity is due to structure of receptor -simplest receptors are dendrites (free nerve endings), least specific

Question 30

transduction

Answer 30

conversion of environmental stimulus into action potential by sensory receptor

Question 31

sensation

Answer 31

the sense info; action potentials

Question 32

perception

Answer 32

-conscious awareness of sensation -receptors specific for particular type of stimulus

Question 33

receptive field

Answer 33

area monitored by single receptor (e.g. touch: arm vs. fingertip)

Question 34

labeled line

Answer 34

-link between receptor and processing site in CNS -stimulation anywhere on labeled line will produce same perception (phantom limb)

Question 35

stimulus -> receptor -> transduction ->:

Answer 35

action potential -> sensation -> -> CNS perception

Question 36

tonic receptors

Answer 36

-always active -signal at different rate when stimulated -monitor background levels

Question 37

phasic receptors

Answer 37

-activated by stimulus -monitor intensity and rate of change of stimulus

Question 38

adaptation

Answer 38

reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus

Question 39

peripheral adaptation

Answer 39

-reduction in receptor activity -phasic -> fast adapting -tonic -> slow or non-adapting

Question 40

central adaption

Answer 40

-inhibition of nuclei along labeled line -not all pathways will adapt

Question 41

four types of general sensory receptors:

Answer 41

1. pain = nociceptor 2. temperature = thermoreceptor 3. physical = mechanoreceptor 4. chemicals = chemoreceptor -all can be found in both somatic (exteroceptors) & visceral (interoceptors) locations except: proprioceptors (a mechanoreceptor) are somatic only

Question 42

nociceptors (general sensory receptors)

Answer 42

-detect pain -common in skin, joint capsules, periosteum & walls of blood vessels -rare in deep tissue & visceral organs -consist of free nerve endings with large receptor fields -tonic receptors with no peripheral adaptation -pain levels are modulated by endorphins which inhibit CNS function

Question 43

mode of action for nociceptors (general sensory receptors)

Answer 43

1. injured cells release arachidonic acid 2. arachidonic acid is converted into prostaglandins by interstitial enzyme cyclo-oxygenase 3. prostaglandins activate nociceptors (many pain medications like aspirin function to inhibit cyclo-oxygenase)

Question 44

what happens when nociceptors are transduced?

Answer 44

-once transduced pain sensations are carried on either type A or type C fibers/axons: -type A = fast pain; stab or cut; triggers defensive reflexes -type C = slow pain, aching pain

Question 45

thermoreceptors

Answer 45

-detect temp -found in skin, skeletal muscle, liver & hypothalamus -consist of free nerve endings -phasic receptors that adapt easily

Question 46

mechanoreceptors

Answer 46

detect membrane distortion

Question 47

tactile receptor (mechonreceptor)

Answer 47

detect touch, pressure & vibration on skin

Question 48

free nerve endings (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

Answer 48

-detect touch on skin -tonic receptors with small receptor fields

Question 49

root hair plexus with nerve endings (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

Answer 49

-detect hair movement -phasic receptors, adapt quickly

Question 50

tactile discs/Merkel's discs (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

Answer 50

-detect fine touch -extremely sensitive -whole cell tonic receptors

Question 51

tactile corpuscles/Meissner's corpuscles (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

Answer 51

-detect fine touch & vibration -larger receptor structure -phasic receptors, adapt rapidly

Question 52

lamellated corpuscles/Pacinian corpuscles (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

Answer 52

-detect deep pressure -larger multi-layer receptor -phasic receptor, adapt rapidly

Question 53

Bulbous corpuscles/Ruffini corpuscles (tactile receptor -> mechanoreceptor)

Answer 53

-detect pressure & distortion -large tonic receptors, no adaptation

Question 54

proprioceptors (mechanoreceptors)

Answer 54

-detect positions of joints & muscles -tonic receptors, don't adapt, complex

Question 55

muscle spindles (proprioceptors -> mechanoreceptors)

Answer 55

-modified skeletal muscle cells -monitor skeletal muscle length

Question 56

Golgi tendon organs (proprioceptors -> mechanoreceptors)

Answer 56

-dendrites around collagen fibers at the muscle-tendon junction -monitor skeletal muscle tension

Question 57

joint capsule receptor (proprioceptors -> mechanoreceptors)

Answer 57

-monitor pressure, tension & movement in the joint

Question 58

baroreceptors (mechanoreceptors)

Answer 58

-detect pressure changes -found in elastic tissue of blood vessels & organs of digestive, reproductive & urinary tracts -consists of free nerve endings -phasic receptors, adapt rapidly

Question 59

chemoreceptors

Answer 59

-detect changes in concentration of specific chemicals or compounds (pH, CO2) -found in respiratory centers of brain & large arteries -phasic receptors, adapt rapidly

Question 60

somatic sensory pathways

Answer 60

-consist of two or three neurons -only ~1% of somatic sensory info reaches cerebrum (major changes only,(“background” is filtered) -LSD interferes with sensory damping/filtering = sensory overload -all sensory info undergoes decussation in spine before reaching target in CNS

Question 61

first-order neuron (somatic sensory pathways)

Answer 61

-sensory neuron -connects from receptor to CNS -cell body is in dorsal root ganglion/cranial nerve ganglion

Question 62

second-order neuron (somatic sensory pathways)

Answer 62

-interneuron (stimulated by first order) -located in spinal cord or brain stem -subconscious processing of info

Question 63

third-order neuron (somatic sensory pathways)

Answer 63

-located in thalamus -relays info to primary somatosensory cortex of cerebrum for conscious awareness (perception)

Question 64

sensory homunculus

Answer 64

a map along the cerebral cortex of where each part of the body is processed

Question 65

visceral sensory pathways

Answer 65

-contain interoceptors -only 1st & 2nd order neurons

Question 66

interoceptors (visceral sensory pathways)

Answer 66

transmit info to solitary nucleus of medulla oblongata for relay to visceral centers in brainstem and diencephalon (no perception)

Question 67

efferent division

Answer 67

-conscious and subconscious motor centers in brain -> motor pathways -> 1. somatic nervous system -> skeletal muscles 2. autonomic nervous system -> visceral effectors (smooth & cardiac muscle, glands, adipose)

Question 68

somatic nervous system

Answer 68

-motor control of skeletal muscle -consists of two neurons: upper motor & lower motor

Question 69

upper motor neuron (somatic nervous system)

Answer 69

-has soma in CNS processing center: a. primary motor cortex of cerebrum (voluntary control) b. cerebrum, diencephalon, and brainstem (subconscious control: reflex) c. basal nuclei of cerebrum & cerebellum (coordination, balance, fine-tuning)

Question 70

lower motor neuron (somatic nervous system)

Answer 70

-soma in brain stem or spinal cord -links to skeletal muscle motor unit

Question 71

Parkinson’s disease

Answer 71

-jittery movements: lack fine tuning of motor -results from degeneration of dopamine neurons of substantia nigra (inhibits basal nuclei) -overactive basal nuclei = “ticks”

Question 72

Amylotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Answer 72

-degeneration of motor neurons in CNS -causes muscle atrophy and death

Question 73

epilepsy

Answer 73

-1/25 people -wide range in condition: absence seizures (blank) to grand mal seizures (convulsions, unconscious) -uncontrolled/chaotic neuron activity in brain: blocks normal messages

Question 74

autonomic nervous system

Answer 74

-motor control of visceral effectors -two subdivisions -involves three neurons: 1. visceral motor nuclei in hypothalamus to autonomic nuclei in CNS 2. autonomic nuclei to autonomic ganglia in PNS 3. autonomic ganglia to visceral effector

Question 75

sympathetic & parasympathetic of the autonomic nervous system:

Answer 75

1. sympathetic = “fight or flight” (“s” for “stress”) 2. parasympathetic = “rest and digest” (“p” for “peace”) -typically oppose each other on same effector -some effectors innervated by only one: -blood vessels and sweat glands: sympathetic only -smooth muscle of eye: parasympathetic only

Question 76

sympathetic division

Answer 76

-prepares body for heightened somatic activity -ganglia: located near spinal cord & adrenal medulla -releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as hormones in blood to controls effectors body-wide at once (endocrine function)

Question 77

sympathetic activation results:

Answer 77

-increased alertness -insensitivity to pain -elevation in BP, heart, respiratory rate -elevation in muscle tone -mobilization of energy reserves -secretion from eccrine sudoriferous glands (sweat glands

Question 78

neurotransmitters involved in the sympathetic division of ANS

Answer 78

1. preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine (cholinergic synapse) -> EPSP on ganglionic neuron -directly open ion channel -fast-acting, short-lived 2. Ganglionic neurons / postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine at effector (adrenergic synapse)

Question 79

what does the result of a neurotransmiter in the sympathetic division depend on?

Answer 79

-result depends on type of receptor: 1. a1 and b1 receptors 2. a2 and b2 receptors -G protein -> second messengers -slow-acting but long-lasting

Question 80

a1 and b1 receptors

Answer 80

excitatory/stimulatory to effector

Question 81

a2 and b2 receptors

Answer 81

inhibitory, (beta-blockers: block b1 receptors )

Question 82

parasympathetic division

Answer 82

-stimulates visceral activity -maintains homeostasis -ganglia located in or near effector -vagus nerve carries 75% of parasympathetic innervations

Question 83

parasympathetic activation results:

Answer 83

-constriction of pupils -secretion by digestive glands -secretion of hormones for nutrient uptake -sexual arousal -activation of digestive tract -defecation and urination -constriction of respiratory pathways -reduction in heart rate

Question 84

neurotransmitters involved in the parasympathetic division of ANS

Answer 84

-all release Ach: all cholinergic synapses -effects quick, localized, short-lived -type of effect depends on the receptor: 1. Nicotinic receptor 2. Muscarinic receptor

Question 85

muscarinic receptor

Answer 85

inhibitory or excitatory, depending on the target cell

Question 86

nicotinic receptor

Answer 86

excitatory effect on target

Question 87

higher order function

Answer 87

1. involve cerebral cortex 2. involve both conscious & subconscious processing 3. are not part of genetic wiring (reflex): can be modified (ex: memory & consciousness

Question 88

memory

Answer 88

storage and retrieval of info

Question 89

fact memories

Answer 89

specific bits of info

Question 90

skill memories

Answer 90

learned motor behaviors

Question 91

short term memory (STM)

Answer 91

-primary/working memory -rapid recall but short retention -store 7-8 bits of info at one time -STM can be converted to long-term memory for more permanent storage

Question 92

memory consolidation

Answer 92

-STM -> LTM -performed by hippocampus -depends on: 1. emotional state 2. rehearsal 3. association 4. automatic memory

Question 93

long term memory (LTM)

Answer 93

-infinite info -can be stored for lifetime -secondary memories: fade with time, can be difficult to recall much later -tertiary memories -LTMs are broken into parts to store in appropriate cerebral cortex (ex: visual, olfactory)

Question 94

tertiary memories

Answer 94

part of one's consciousness (ex:name)

Question 95

mechanism of memory storage is not clearly understood but involves:

Answer 95

1. new mRNA and protein synthesis in neurons involved 2. change of shape of dendritic spines 3. change in size and number of synaptic terminals 4. release of more neurotransmitters

Question 96

amnesia

Answer 96

loss of memory, due to disease or trauma of hippocampus & amygdala

Question 97

retrograde amnesia

Answer 97

lose memories of the past events, remember now -> forward

Question 98

anterograde amnesia

Answer 98

unable to store new memories, only remember past

Question 99

conscious

Answer 99

aware of external stimuli

Question 100

unconscious

Answer 100

range of unawareness: drowsy -> -> -> -> -> brain dead

Question 101

sleep

Answer 101

partial unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused with stimuli

Question 102

deep sleep

Answer 102

-relaxed state -heart and respiratory rates decreased -minimal activity in cerebral cortex

Question 103

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

Answer 103

-active, dreaming state -cerebral cortex as active/ more active than in a conscious state -but little reaction to outside stimuli -skeletal muscles inhibited

Question 104

sleep:

Answer 104

-alternate between deep and REM sleep throughout sleep period -sleep required for life, but not clear why -lack of sleep leads to serious disturbance in mental function -during sleep protein synthesis in neurons increases: sleep may be used to repair & recharge neural tissue

Question 105

narcolepsy

Answer 105

-condition where person lapses abruptly into sleep for~15min -usually follows pleasant event -cause unknown -sufferers show reduced levels of REM sleep at night

Question 106

sleep apnea

Answer 106

-person stops breathing until hypoxia (lack of O2) wakes them -hypoxic wake response ability declines with age or respiratory illness

Question 107

arousal:

Answer 107

-requires reticular activating system (RAS) -RAS located in brainstem, provides consciousness -internal clock in suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus sets normal sleep-wake cycle

Question 108

arousal mechanism:

Answer 108

-stimulation of RAS -> activation of cerebral cortex -positive feedback (reverberation) on RAS maintains consciousness after initial stimulus -over time RAS becomes less responsive = sleepy feeling

Question 109

age-related changes

Answer 109

-decrease in brain size & weight (cerebrum) -decrease in # of neurons -decrease in blood flow to brain (increased chance of stroke) -decrease in # of synapses -decrease in neurotransmitter production -accumulation of deposits

Question 110

accumulation of deposits (age-related change)

Answer 110

a. inside cells: -lipofuscin -neurofibrillary tangles b. extracellular -plaques -amyloid proteins -all forms of deposits affect processing & memory ability, motor speed & sensory sensitivity

Question 111

lipofuscin (accumulation deposit)

Answer 111

granular pigment in cells

Question 112

neurofibrillary tangles (accumulation deposit)

Answer 112

packed neurofibrils in cells

Question 113

plaques (accumulation deposit)

Answer 113

collections of fibrillar proteins entangling abnormal cell processes extracellular

Question 114

amyloid proteins (accumulation deposit)

Answer 114

normal proteins misfolded become sticky extracellular

Question 115

Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 115

-loss of higher-order functions -occurs in 15% over 65 years -progressive, untreatable -due to reduction in Ach levels & accumulation of beta-amyloid peptide (plaques and tangles) -current treatments block Ach breakdown

Question 116

Huntington’s disease

Answer 116

-genetic, middle age onset -accumulation of Huntington protein kills neurons of basal nuclei & cerebral cortex -> ticks, cognitive dysfunction -progressive and fatal (onset -> death in ~15 years)