chapter 13: flaw in reasoning

Question 1

common types of errors in reasoning

Answer 1

1. uncertain use of term/concept
2. source argument/ad hominem
3. circular reasoning
4. conditional reasoning errors
5. mistaken cause/effect
6. straw man
7. lack of relevant evidence
8. internal contradiction
9. appeal fallacies
10. survey errors
11. exceptional cases/overgeneralization
12. errors of composition and division
13. false analogy
14. false dilemma
15. errors in use of evidence
16. time shift errors
17. numbers and percentage errors

Question 2

uncertain use of term/concept

Answer 2

ex: equivocates with respect to a central concept.

ex: fails to define the term

Question 3

source of argument/ad hominem

Answer 3

attacks the person/source or argument
ex: attacking the person and their actions or attacking the motive of the source

Question 4

circular reasoning

Answer 4

assumes as true what is being proved
ex: conclusion = premise

Question 5

conditional reasoning errors

Answer 5

ex: mistaken negation, mistaken reversal
*you must be able to see if it is mixing up necessary or sufficient term

Question 6

mistaken cause/effect

Answer 6

• assumes casual b/c of a sequence of events (ex: mistakes temporal for casual or mistakes one thing happening first as casual)

-assuming casual b/c of correlation (ex: confusing coincidence)

-failure to consider alternate cause for the effect or both cause/effect

-failure to consider the reversed relationship

Question 7

straw man

Answer 7

distorts or misinterprets argument

Question 8

appeal falacies

Answer 8

• appeal to authority
  -appeal to popular opinion/numbers
• appeal to emotion

Question 9

survey errors

Answer 9

• biased sample used
• survey questions are improperly constructed
  -respondents lying

Question 10

errors of composition and division

Answer 10

• involves assigning individual judgment to the group as a whole or vise versa

Question 11

false analogy

Answer 11

analogy compares 2 things and is applied to different things

Question 12

false dilemma

Answer 12

assumes only 2 options exist when there are more

Question 13

errors in use of evidence

Answer 13

• lack of evidence tries to justify why it’s false
  -lack of evidence tries to justify why its true
  -thinks something is proved just b/c it is weakened

Question 14

time shift errors

Answer 14

assuming future thigns b/c of past incidences

Question 15

numbers and percentage erros

Answer 15

confuse percentage with whole