Chapter 12 - Social Psychology Flashcards
Why did Abu Ghraib happen?
The guards who brutalized the Iraqi prisoners were normal people, but they were in an overwhelming situation. In the prison, there was an unclear chain of command and a diffusion of responsibility.. Some soldiers expected to be there for a shorter period of time and now they were stationed in an overcrowded prison. The guards were working long hours in extremely hot temperatures and frequently under mortar attack. During wartime, the soldiers likely saw everything as “us” and “them” and members of the opposing group were dehumanized.
A study was done that made Stanford students be the guards and the prisoners in a mock prison. The guards shockingly ended up being brutal and sadistic. They had the prisoners engage in meaningless tasks
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The guards at Abu Grahib believed it was there job to “soften up” the prisoners before interrogation and that was another reason behind their brutal behavior
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When people act brutal and sadistic, we…
Assume that they are brutal and sadistic. We don’t consider the situation in which they have acted brutally and sadistically.
We have to understand that many behaviors..
Become more understandable within particular contexts
What do our interactions with people do?
They shape who we are and how we understand the world
Social psychology
It is concerned with how people influence other people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Almost every human activity has a ______
Social dimension
Research in social psychology reveals what?
Humans are not inherently flawed or evil. They are distinct individuals who are powerfully influenced by social context
Because we are social animals, humans live in ____
Groups
Why do humans live in groups?
Groups provide security from predators and competing groups, mating opportunities, assistance in hunting and gathering food, etc.
Mechanisms have evolved for distinguishing….
Members of one’s group from members of another group, as well as detecting dangers from within the group such as deception, coercion, and infidelity
We constantly make social judgments and determine whether people are friends or foes, trustworthy, unreliable, honest, etc
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We automatically classify people into ___
Social categories
Our long term evaluations of people are heavily influenced by our _____
First impressions
Nonverbal behavior
The facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others
People can make accurate judgments by…
Observing someone for only a few seconds
Thin slices of behavior
Making quick judgments about someone by watching their nonverbal behavior
Videotapes of judges giving instructions to juries reveal that a judge’so nonvernal actions can predict whether a jury will find someone guilty or not guilty
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Explain Abu Ghrahib
During 2003, American soldiers brutalized Iraqi detainees at Abu Ghrahib. The soldiers raped prisoners, beat them, stripped them, and put them in humiliating positions, and made them perform sex
Gait
How people walk
People with what kind of gait are seen as happy?
People with a bounce in their step who walk while swinging their arms are seen as happy.
People who are hostile have what kind of gait?
They take short steps while stopped over
People who are angry have what kind of gait?
Taking long strides with heavy steps
Remember these are just how people perceive their gaits (oops should have clarified that)
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The first thing we notice about another person is what?
Their face!
The face communicates what?
Emotional state, interest, and distrust, anger, or flirtation
What is important in social situations?
Eye contact!
How do we perceive eye contact?
It depends on our culture. In the US, we seek to make eye contact - if the other person doesn’t meet our eyes we see them as embarrassed, ashamed, or lying.
However, in certain Native American tribes, eye contact is considered disrespectful
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Attributions
People’s explanations for why events or actions occur, including other people’s behaviors
Why are we motivated to make attributions?
We are motivated to draw inferences in part by a basic need for both order and predictability. The world is an unpredictable place where many unexpected things happen. We prefer to think that things happen for a reason and therefore so that we can anticipate future events.
Just world hypothesis
In this view of the world, you believe the victims of bad things did something to deserve the bad things. For ex., a girl got raped because she asked for it. For ex., a victim of illness did something bad to become ill.
Personal attributions
Explanations that refer to people’s internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts. These are also known as internal or dispositional attributions
Situational attributions
Also known as external attributions.. These explanations refer to outside events such as luck, accidents, or the actions of other people.
Attributions can be…
Stable over time (permanent) or unstable (temporary) OR controllable or uncontrollable
In making attributions about our own behavior, what do we do?
We tend to have a SELF-SERVING bias. We attribute our failures to situational, unstable, or uncontrollable factors in a way that casts us in a positive light and we attribute our successes to personal, permanent factors in a way that gives us credit for doing well.
Example of self-serving bias?
If you do well on a test, you say it’s because you’re smart - intelligence is a characteristic you possess. If you fail a test, it’s because you didn’t get enough sleep or the professor made a bad exam
Fundamental attribution error
When explaining other people’s behavior, we tend to overemphasize the importance of personality traits and underestimate the importance of situation. People try to draw inferences about others and make attributions about events.. For example, when someone drives badly, we assume they’re a bad driver instead of assuming they’re just having an off day because of something personal
Correspondence bias
Emphasizes our tendency to expect the behaviors of others to correspond with our own beliefs and personalities.
In contrast to the fundamental attribution error, we… But
When we make assumptions about ourselves, we tend to focus on situations rather than on our personal traits/dispositions
Actor/observer discrepancy
When interpreting our own behavior, we tend to focus on situations. When interpreting other people’s behavior, we tend to focus on their personal dispositions. For instance, we say our lateness is due to external factors like traffic. But we say other people’s lateness is because they’re lazy/irresponsible.
Do eastern countries follow the fundamental attribution error??
No, eastern countries are more holistic in how they perceive the world and other people. Eastern people use more information to make attributions about people in comparison to Western people
Although easterners are more likely than westerners to take situational forces into account, they still tend to favor personal information rather than situational information when making attributions about others.!
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Explain stereotyping
They’re based on mental schemas (structures that help us organize information about ppl based on their membership to certain groups). They are the result of heuristic thinking. Stereotyping occurs automatically and outside of our awareness.
Are stereotypes neutral
Yes. They simply reflect efficient cognitive processes
Some stereotypes are based in truth
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What are the two basic reasons for stereotyping others?
- They allow us to streamline our formation of impressions
2. They help us deal with the limitations inherent in mental processing
Stereotypes affect the formation of _____
Impressions
Once we form stereotypes, we…
Maintain them by a number of processes
How are stereotypes maintained?
- Stereotypes guide attention towards information that confirms the stereotype and away from disco firming evidence.
- Our memories are biased to match stereotypes
Subtyping
When we encounter someone who does not fit a stereotype, we put that person in a special category rather than alter the stereotype.
Example of Subtyping
You meet a black successful person and label them as the exception to your stereotype that blacks are lazy people
Self-fulfilling prophecy
People’s tendency to behave in ways that confirm their own or others’ expectations
Study done for the self-fulfilling prophecy?
Teachers were given a list of students who would have increased IQs during the school year. These students were chosen completely at random, but the teachers didn’t know that. These students were labeled “bloomers.” The bloomers got higher IQs over the course of the school year because the teachers gave them extra attention and encouragement. The teachers’ expectations turned into reality
Another ex of self fulfilling prophecy?
Men were talking to various women on the phone, and beforehand they were shown supposed photos of the women, some attractive, some unattractive. The men who thought they were talking to an attractive woman rated them as more sociable, poised, and humorous. Then outside ppl listened in on the conversation without seeing photos. It turns out the women attributed to attractive photos seemed more engaging and pleasant to them too! It was because the men’s behavior helped confirm the stereotypes by bringing out behaviors in the women associated with our perceptions of what attractive and unattractive people are like.
Stereotype threat
When women have to indicate whether they are male or female on a test, saying they’re female affects their score because they unconsciously believe that women are not as smart than men due to stereotypes
Why is stereotype threat decrease performance?
- Physiological stress affects people’s prefrontal functioning
- People tend to think about their performances and this thinking distracts them from the tasks
- People attempt to suppress negative thoughts and emotions, and this suppression requires a great deal of effort
Prejudice
Negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype
Discrimination
The inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice
What is responsible for a lot of conflict and warfare around the world?
Prejudice and discrimination
Why do stereotypes so often lead to prejudice and discrimination?
Researchers theorized that only certain types of people are prejudiced, that people treat others as scapegoats to relieve the tensions of daily living, and that people discriminate against others to protect their own self esteem.
What evolutionary stuff helps stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination continue?
We evolutionarily tend to favor our groups over other groups, and we tend to stigmatize those who pose threats to our groups
Ingroups
Groups that we belong to
Outgroups
Groups that we don’t belong to
Does group membership affect our social identity?
Yes, it is an important part of our social identity and contributes to our overall self esteem
People are predisposed to be wary of others who do not belong to their own group
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When does the separation of people into Ingroup and outgroup members occur?
Early in development - 6 year olds show as much a racial bias as white adults
Outgroup homogeneity effect
According to this, we tend to view outgroup members as less varied than Ingroup members.
Ingroup favoritism
The tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the Ingroup more than members of the outgroup.
Ex of Ingroup favoritism
We are more willing to do favors for people in our Ingroup
Even when you’re assigned into groups for like, a school project, you treat Ingroup members more favorably
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Why do people value members of their own group in an evolutionary sense?
Personal survival depends on group survival
Ingroup favoritism when it comes to women?
Women show a much greater automatic Ingroup bias toward other women than men do toward other men
Why do women show an Ingroup bias towards other women?
Women can freely express their affection for their female friends whereas men don’t like to do that with their male friends too much. Women also depend on other women for nurturing
In a computer stimulation where you have to shoot ppl holding weapons, but avoid civilians holding non-weapons, what happened?
People shoot black civilians holding non weapons just because of racial bias
Do stereotypes occur consciously?
No, they occur unconsciously without people’s awareness or intent
What’s an example of how we can override black stereotypes?
Being presented positive examples of black individuals
In everyday life, what does it feel like to try to inhibit stereotypical thinking?
It’s difficult and requires self control
What happens in the brain when we try to inhibit stereotypical thinking?
The frontal lobes have to override the emotional responses associated with amygdala activity. The frontal lobes are important for controlling thoughts and behavior while the amygdala is involved in detecting potential threats
Since when have social psychologists tried to alleviate prejudice between groups?
1950s
How can ppl overcome prejudice?
By working together toward a greater purpose - like how everyone helped out with the earthquake in Haiti
Ex of outgroup hostility: 5th grade boys at a camp were divided into 2 groups and competed in games. What happened?
Animosity between groups and violence
How did the boys end up bonding and getting along?
Working together for a common goal; a truck broke down and the boys (both groups) had to help push it
What increases hostility between groups
Seeing the other group as strangers, being isolated from the other group, and competition with the other group
What helps groups cooperate and respect one another?
Working together and superordinate goals
What are superordinate goals?
Goals that require people to cooperate - these goals reduce hostility between groups when they work together
Two groups working together to achieve a common goal become one big group
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How else can we reduce prejudice?
Be aware of your prejudice - training people about stereotypical associations helps reduce them
The programs that most successfully bring groups together are what?
Person-to-person interactions
Communal work toward superordinate goals can reduce prejudice and benefit all the workers.
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Explain jigsaw classroom
In the 1970s, a man had students work together in a mixed race or mixed sex groups where each member of the group was an expert on one aspect of the assignment. The jigsaw classroom showed a more positive treatment of ppl of other ethnicities afterward
Are stereotypes always a bad thing?
No. Stereotypes can be positive, neutral, or negative
How can we reduce prejudice?
Present ppl with positive information about members of negatively stereotypes groups and requiring members of different groups to work cooperatively towards superordinate goals
Attitudes
People’s evaluations of objects, events, or ideas
How are attitudes shaped?
They are shaped by social context and they play an important role in how we evaluate and interact with other people
What do we have attitudes about?
All sorts of things - mundane, trivial matters like what deodorant to by - and then important things like politics, morals, and religion
Are we always aware of attitudes?
No.. Some attitudes we are aware of, but some we don’t even know that we hold
Some attitudes are simple, but some attitudes are complex. Example?
You like ice cream, but you know it’s bad for you. Therefore, you have a complex attitude towards ice cream
What kind of attitudes do people have towards new things?
People develop negative attitudes about new things more quickly than they develop positive attitudes about them
Do we like familiar things?
Yes. The more we are exposed to something, the more we tend to like it!
Mere exposure effect
Greater exposure to an item and therefore greater familiarity with it caused people to have more positive attitudes about the item.
Ex of mere exposure effect?
When we see a normal photograph of ourselves and the same image is reversed, we would like the reversed image more because we’re more familiar with it (through looking at it in the mirror)
Can our attitudes be conditioned?
Yes, they can. Attitudes can be conditioned because our associations between things and their meanings can be changed
What sort of conditioning shapes our attitudes
Classical and operant conditioning - advertisers use classical conditioning by pairing a celebrity with a product. Operant conditioning shapes attitudes as well - studying and getting a good grade makes you have a more positive attitude toward studying
Are attitudes shaped through socialization?
Yes. Caregivers, peers, teachers, religious leaders, and politicians all guide our attitudes about many things.
Do attitudes predict behavior?
The stronger and more personally relevant the attitude, the more likely it is to predict behavior.
What else to strong an personally relevant attitudes make us do?
It makes us defend the attitude
The more specific the attitude…
The more predictive it is. For ex, your attitudes toward recycling are more predictive of whether you take your sofa can to the recycling bin than are your general environmental beliefs
Attitude accessibility
Refers to the ease or difficulty that a person has in retrieving an attitude from memory
Ex of attitude accessibility
Activated attitudes are more stable, predictive of behavior, and resistant to change.
Example of attitude accessibility
The more quickly you recall that you like your psychology course, the more likely you are to attend lectures and read the textbook
