Chapter 12 | Social Psychology Flashcards
Social Brain Hypothesis
Primates have larger brains (larger prefrontal cortices) because we live in complex social groups that change over time.
The size of a primates species’ standard social group is related to the volume of that species’ neocortex.
Reciprocity
A condition that is to be met when people organize themselves into groups.
Means that people treat others as others treat them.
Transitivity
A condition that is to be met when people organize themselves into groups.
Means that people generally share their friends’ opinions of other people. Exactly the same as the social triangles in Fritz Heider’s balance theory.
Outgroup homogeneity effect
The tendency to view outgroup members as less varies than ingroup members.
People from different racial groups notice more variation among members of their own race and less of another race.
Social identity theory
The idea that ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership.
Examples - school, cultural group, country, etc.
Ingroup favoritism
The tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup.
This is one of the most consistent features of categorizing people as ingroup or outgroup members.
The risky-shirt effect
Noted by psychologist James Stoner (1968), groups often make riskier decisions than individuals do.
Example - corporate boards might make relatively risky investments that none of the members would have tried alone.
Group polarization
The process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time.
When groups make decisions, they choose the course of action that was initially favored by the majority of the individuals in the group.
Groupthink
The tendency of a group to make a bad decision as a result of preserving the group and maintaining its cohesiveness; especially likely when the group is under intense pressure, is facing external threats, and is biased in a particular direction.
To prevent groupthink, leaders must refrain from expressing their opinions too strongly at the beginning of discussions. Group should be encouraged to consider alternative ideas. Weighing the pros and cons of each can help people avoid groupthink.
Social facilitation
The idea that the presence of others generally enhances performances.
Zajonc’s model of social facilitation
The presence of others leads to increased arousal. The arousal favors the dominant response (most likely to be performed in the situation). If the required response is easy or well learned, performance is enhanced. If the required response is novel or not well learned, performance suffers.
Social loafing
The tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone.
Deindividuation
A state of reduces individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards; this phenomenon may occur when people are part of a group.
Social facilitations V. social loafing
Facilitation - the presence of others enhances performance
Loafing the presence of others diminishes performance when responsibility is shared.
Conformity
The altering of one’s behaviors an dopinions to match those of other people or to match other people’s expectations.
Two primary reasons that people conform - normative and informational influence.
Normative influence
The tendency for people to conform in order to fit in with the group.
Informational influence
The tendency for people to conform when they assume that the behavior of others represents the correct way to respond.
Social norms
Expected standards of conduct that influence behavior.
Obedience
Following the orders of a person of authority.
Aggression
Any behavior that involves the intention to harm another.
Associated with several situational factors - social, situational, and biological factors.
How does temperate affect aggression?
Involves negative emotions - being insulted, afraid, frustrated, overly hot, or in pain - can trigger physical aggression.
Prosocial behaviors
Actions that benefit others, such as doing favors or helping.
Altruism
Providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so.
Inclusive fitness
An explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefits of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival.
Bystander intervention effect
The failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present.
What are the four major reasons why bystanders do not consistently intervene in emergencies.
- Diffusion of responsibility - expecting others to help
- Social blunders - fear of looking foolish if they seek help that isn’t needed.
- Anonymous - people are les likely to help (if you need help, call someone out specifically)
- How much harm do they risk to themselves by helping? What benefits might they have to forgo if they help?
Attitudes
People’s evaluations of other people, objects, events, or ideas.
Mere exposure effect
The idea that greater exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking for it.
Explicit attitudes
Attitudes that a person can report.
Implicity attitudes
Attitudes that influence a person’s feelings and behavior at an unconscious level.
Persuasion
The active and conscious effort to change in attitude through the transmission of a message.
Elaboration likelihood model
The idea that persuasive messages lead to attitude changes in either of two ways - via the central route or via the peripheral route.
Compliance
The tendency to agree to do things requested by others.
Three ways of inducing compliance
Foot in the door - If you agree to a small request, you are more likely to comply with a large request.
Door in the face - If you refuse a large request, you are more likely to comply with a smaller request.
Low balling - When you agree to buy a product for a certain price, you are likely to comply with a request to pay more for the product.
Nonverbal behavior
The facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others.
Attribution
People’s explanations for why events or actions occur.
Personal attributions
Explanations of people’s behavior that refer to their internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts.
Situation attributions
Explanations of people’s behavior that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people’s actions.
Fundamental attribution error
In explaining other people’s behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors.
Actor/observer discrepancy
The tendency to focus on situations to explain one’s own behavior but to focu on dispositions to explain other people’s behavior.
Prejudice
Negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype.
Discrimination
The differential treatment of people as a result of prejudice against their group.
Modern racism
Subtle forms of prejudice that coexist with the rejection of racist beliefs.
Stereotype threat
Fear of concern about confirming negative stereotypes related to one’s own groups, which in turn impairs performance on a task.
“What is beautiful is good” stereotype
The belief that attractive people are superior in most ways.
Passionat elove
A state of intense longing and desire
Companionate love
A strong commitment based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy
