Chapter 12 - Problem Solving and Creativity

Question 1

Problem

Answer 1

occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

Question 2

The Gestalt Approach

Answer 2

Problem solving, for the Gestalt psychologists, was about (1) how people represent a problem in their mind and (how problems are presented) (2) how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation.

Question 3

Restructuring

Answer 3

the process of changing the problem’s representation - Gestalt psychologists

Question 4

Insight

Answer 4

any SUDDEN comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganiza-
tion of a person’s mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious

Question 5

NonInsight Problems

Answer 5

also called analytically based problems

solved by a process of systematic anal- ysis, often using techniques based on past experience (ex. math - 16y^2 - 40yz + 25z^2)

Question 6

Insight vs NonInsight

Answer 6

Insight: warmth ratings began at 2 and then didn’t change much, until all of a sudden they jumped from 3 to 7 at the end. Thus, 15 seconds before the solution, the median rating was a relatively cold 3 for the insight problems, meaning at this point participants didn’t feel they were close to a solution

NonInsight: the ratings began at 3 and then gradually increased until the problem was solved

Question 7

Fixation + Functional Fixedness

Answer 7

Fixation: people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

Functional Fixedness: focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object
ex. candle problem: The solution to the problem occurs when the person realizes that the matchbox can be used as a support rather than as a container. When Duncker
did this experiment, he presented one group of participants with small card-
board boxes containing the materials (candles, tacks, and matches) and presented another group with the same materials, but outside the boxes, so the boxes were empty. When he compared the performance of the two groups, he found that the group that had been presented with the boxes as containers found the problem more difficult than did the group presented with empty boxes.

Question 8

Mental Set

Answer 8

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person’s experience of what has worked in the past

Question 9

Luchins WaterJug Problem

Answer 9

mental set group: p1 was demonstrated and they were asked to complete p2-8. this created a mental set for B-A-2C.

nonmental set group: were asked to complete p7-8

23% of MSG used the simpler solution and 100% of the NMSG used the simpler solution

Question 10

Information-Prcoessing Approach

Answer 10

“logic theorists”

Tower of Hanoi Problem - Newell and Simon

Question 11

Tower of Hanoi Problem (inital, intermediate, goal, operators, problem)

Answer 11

Newell and Simon

Inital state: conditions at the beginning of the problem

Intermediate State: states inbetween the inital and the goal state.

Goal state: the solution of the problem.

Operators: actions that take the problem from one state to another. For the Tower of Hanoi problem, the operators are moving the disc to another peg.

Problem space: All possible states that could occur when solving a problem

Question 12

Means-end Analysis and Subgoals

Answer 12

Means-end Analysis: A way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
ex. Establish subgoals, each of which moves the solution closer to the goal state.

Subgoals: Small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal. Occasionally, a subgoal may appear to increase the distance to the goal state, but in the long run can result in the shortest path to the goal. ex. To free up the medium- sized disc, you need to move the small disc from the middle peg back to the peg on the left.

Significance: can be applied to real-life situations!

Question 13

Mutilated Checkerboard Problem

Answer 13

If we eliminate two corners of the checkerboard can we now cover the remaining squares with 31 dominos?

How the participant represents this image in their mind will depict if they’ll be able to solve it and how quickly. Hint: do not remove corners that are diagonal from eachother

Different information on the board can give participant INSIGHT that that these squares must be of different colors.

Question 14

Analogy + Analogical Problem Solving

Answer 14

using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem

Question 15

Analogical Transfer

Answer 15

the transfer from one problem to another

Target Problem: he problem the participant is trying to solve

Source Problem: another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and that illustrates a way to solve the target problem

Question 16

Duncker’s Radiation Problem

Answer 16

Ray at high intensity destroys tumor and tissue.
Ray at low intensity does not destroy tumor or tissue.

Solution? Low intensity at different angles.

Reconstructing the idea of a SINGLE ray - multiple rays can be used.

The Fortress Story could be analogically transfered to solve the dunker problem; doubled success rate.

Question 17

Analogical Problem Solving Steps

Answer 17

1. Noticing an analogous relationship.
2. Mapping correspondence between the source problem and the target problem.
3. Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem.

Question 18

Trade-off and Contingency Strategy

Answer 18

Trade-off: refers to a negotiating strategy in which one person says to an- other, “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B.”

Contingency: negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens, “You can have 18 percent if sales are high, but less if sales are low.”

Question 19

Experts vs. Novices Problem Solving

Answer 19

Chunking information based on experience. If able to chunk, master does better, if unable to chunk, expert and novice are the same.

ex. real chess positions (chunking) vs. random placement (no chunking).

Novices group based on appearance, Experts group based on principles.

Question 20

Divergent Thinking

Answer 20

thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential “solutions” (although some proposals might work better than others)

Question 21

Odón’s Invention

Answer 21

Inflating a bag inside the uterus and pulling it out, bring the baby with it. Inspired by “removing a cork from a bottle trick.” Analogical transfering.

Question 22

Group Brainstorming

Answer 22

freely express ideas that might be useful in solving a particular problem in a group setting.

Question 23

Creative Cognition

Answer 23

Ronald Finke

randomly selected three of the objects from figure, created new form with all three, were given category and had to interpret the new form as something from that category.

these forms were called “preinventive forms”

Question 24

Nine-dot Problem

Answer 24

People perceive dots as a square and don’t realize that they can go beyond the “square.”

Question 25

EEG

Answer 25

EEG activity increases right before the solution.

Question 26

Compound Remote-Associate Problem

Answer 26

Three words are presented, such as pine, crab, and sauce, and the task is to determine one word that, when combined with each of these words, forms a new word or a phrase (pineapple, crabapple, and applesauce, in this example).

Question 27

Incubation

Answer 27

The phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a “time-out” from working on a problem.

Intuition and insight in the unconscious; benefits from low cognitive workloads.

Question 28

Alternate Uses Task

Answer 28

participants had 2 minutes to think of un- usual uses for common objects

followed by a 12-minute incubation period

repeated AUT tasks increased by 40 percent

Question 29

Executive Control Network (ECN)

Answer 29

involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks, plays a crucial role in creativity

Question 30

Default Mode Network (DMN)

Answer 30

DMN activity decreases when a person is involved in a specific task and increases when attention isn’t focused on a task

Question 31

Executive Control Network (ECN) + Default Mode Network (DMN)

Answer 31

Task Engagement: When an individual engages in a cognitive task, such as problem-solving or decision-making, the ECN becomes more active to exert cognitive control, maintain focus, and achieve the task goals.
Task Disengagement: During periods of rest or when the mind is wandering, the DMN becomes more active. This network is involved in internally directed thoughts and self-referential processing.
Switching Between Networks: The brain switches between the DMN and ECN depending on the task demands. For example, when someone shifts from daydreaming to actively concentrating on a task, there is a shift from DMN dominance to ECN dominance.
Integration: Effective cognitive functioning often requires the integration of information processed by both networks. For instance, successful decision-making may involve drawing on memories and self-referential thoughts (DMN) while also exerting cognitive control and focusing attention (ECN).

Question 32

Daydreaming + Volitional Daydreaming

Answer 32

daydreaming: mind wandering
volitional daydreaming: choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes

Question 33

Mindfulness

Answer 33

“the simple process of actively noticing new things” and “paying attention to the present moment” - achieved through meditation

Question 34

Focused Attention (FA) Meditation

Answer 34

focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, as it inevitability will, to bring your attention back to your breath

Question 35

Open Monitoring (OM) Meditation

Answer 35

paying attention to whatever comes into the mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along, does not decrease mind wandering