Chapter 11 - Motivation and Emotion

Question 1

Motivation

Answer 1

• process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigour of goal directed behaviour

Question 2

Perspectives on Motivation:

Instinct Theory and Modern Evolutionary Psychology

Answer 2

*Instinct (fixed action pattern) ? an inherited characteristic, common to all members of a species, that automatically produces a particular response when the organism is exposed to a particular stimulus *Theories faded due to circular reasoning (People are greedy. Why? Because greed is an instinct. Why? Because people are greedy.) *Modern evolutionary psychologists propose that many motives have evolutionary underpinnings

Question 3

Perspectives on Motivation:

Homeostasis and Drive Theory

Homeostasis

Answer 3

*Homeostasis ? a state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain **Requires a sensory mechanism for detecting changes in internal environment, a response system that can restore equilibrium, and a control centre that receives information from sensors

Question 4

Perspectives on Motivation:

Homeostasis and Drive Theory -

Drive theory

Answer 4

*Drive Theory - physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives, states of internal tension that motivate an organism that reduce this tension **Clark Hull proposes that reducing drives is the ultimate goal of motivated behaviour **Flaws in theory found in certain behaviours, such as when people skip meals to diet (increases rather than decreases state of arousal)

Question 5

Perspectives on Motivation:

Incentive and Expectancy Theories

Answer 5

Modern incentive theorists emphasize the pull of external stimuli and how stimuli with high incentive value can motivate behaviour, even in the absence of biological need

Question 6

Perspectives on Motivation:

Incentive and Expectancy Theories -

Incentives

Answer 6

environmental stimuli that pull an organism toward a goal

Question 7

Perspectives on Motivation:

Incentive and Expectancy Theories -

Expectancy x value theory

Answer 7

*goal directed behaviour is jointly determined by two factors: the strength of the person?s expectation that particular behaviours will lead to a goal, and the value the individual places on the goal (incentive value) **Motivation = expectancy x incentive value

Question 8

Perspectives on Motivation: Incentive and Expectancy Theories - Extrinsic motivation

Answer 8

performing an activity to obtain an external reward or to avoid punishment

Question 9

Perspectives on Motivation: Incentive and Expectancy Theories - Intrinsic motivation

Answer 9

performing an activity for its own sake (enjoyment of the activity)

Question 10

Perspectives on Motivation: Incentive and Expectancy Theories - Overjustification hypothesis

Answer 10

giving people extreme rewards to perform activity that they intrinsically enjoy may overjustify that behaviour and reduce intrinsic motivation

Question 11

Perspectives on Motivation: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories

Answer 11

View motivation within a broader context of personality development and functioning, but take radically different approaches

Question 12

Perspectives on Motivation: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories - Freud

Answer 12

Freud believed that most behaviour resulted from a never-ending battle between unconscious impulses struggling for release and psychological defenses used to keep them under control

Question 13

Perspectives on Motivation: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories ? Abraham Maslow

Answer 13

*Abraham Maslow believed that psychology?s perspectives ignored a key motive: our striving for personal growth **Deficiency needs ? concerned with physical and social survival **Growth needs ? motivate us to develop our potential **Proposed concept of need hierarchy, a progression of needs containing deficiency needs at the bottom and growth needs at the top ***Physiological ? safety ? belongingness and love ? esteem ? cognitive ? aesthetic ? self-actualization (need to fulfill our potential, ultimate human motive) ***Can only focus on needs of highest level if bottom levels are satisfied

Question 14

Hunger and Weight Regulation: The Physiology of Hunger - Metabolism

Answer 14

*body?s rate of energy utilization **Two-thirds of energy used goes to support basal metabolism, the resting, continuous metabolic work of body cells

Question 15

Hunger and Weight Regulation: The Physiology of Hunger

Answer 15

*Immediate energy supply information interacts with other signals to regulate food intake (hunger not necessarily linked to immediate energy needs) *Homeostatic mechanisms are designed to prevent people from running low on energy in the first place (organisms will not wait until last second to eat) *Many researchers believe in a set point, an internal physiological standard, around which body weight is regulated (if weight is altered, homeostatic mechanisms will return body close to original weight)

Question 16

Hunger and Weight Regulation: The Physiology of Hunger ? Signals that start and terminate a meal

Answer 16

*Hunger not triggered by empty stomach **People with nerves cut to stomach or stomach surgically removed still reported feelings of hunger *Sensors in hypothalamus and liver monitor blood glucose concentrations **If glucose levels drop, liver converts stored nutrients back into glucose, producing a drop-rise glucose pattern *Humans display a temporary drop-rise glucose pattern prior to experiencing hunger *Walls of stomach and intestine stretch while eating, send nerve signals to brain to indicate fullness **Nutritionally rich food can produce full feeling quicker than equal volume of less nutritious food *Patients with removed stomachs can still experience satiety due to chemical signals **CCK (cholecystokinin) released into blood after eating, stimulates receptors that decrease eating

Question 17

Hunger and Weight Regulation: The Physiology of Hunger ? Signals that regulate general appetite and weight

Answer 17

*Fat cells secrete leptin (hormone that decreases appetite) to regulate food intake and weight **Doesn?t directly cause fullness, but affects amount of satiety signals required *Obese people have ample leptin in blood due to fat mass, but brain appears insensitive to signals

Question 18

Hunger and Weight Regulation: The Physiology of Hunger ? Brain mechanisms

Answer 18

*Many parts of brain play a role in regulating hunger and eating **Lateral hypothalamus triggers hunger **Ventromedial hypothalamus ends hunger ***Both found to not directly affect only hunger, but other factors that would also affect it *Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) ? cluster of neurons packed with receptor sites for various transmitters that stimulate or reduce appetite **When losing weight, less leptin secreted, transmitters for hunger become more active (explains why dieting causes hunger)

Question 19

Hunger and Weight Regulation: Psychological Aspects of Hunger

Answer 19

*Eating is positively reinforced by the good taste of food and negatively reinforced by hunger reduction *Beliefs about caloric content of food, and memory of when and how much we last ate also affect consumption **Amnesia patients accepted multiple lunches half four after each other, while non-amnesia did not *Attitudes, habits, and psychological needs also regulate intake **Women overestimate how thin they must be to meet men?s standards, while men overestimated how bulky they must be

Question 20

Hunger and Weight Regulation: Environmental and Cultural Factors

Answer 20

*Food availability is most obvious environmental regulator of eating *Food taste and variety powerfully regulate eating *Classical conditioning associates smell and sight of food with taste, triggering hunger

Question 21

Hunger and Weight Regulation: Obesity ? Genes and Environment

Answer 21

*Heredity influences basal metabolic rate and tendency to store energy as fat or lean tissue *Genetic facots account for 40-70% of variation in body mass *Experts believe obesity is due to abundance of inexpensive, tasty, high fat foods, a cultural emphasis on getting the best value (causing supersizing of menu items), and technological advances that decrease need for daily physical activity

Question 22

Hunger and Weight Regulation: Obesity ? Dieting and weight loss

Answer 22

*Being fat alters body chemistry and energy expenditure, priming people to stay fat **Obese people have higher insulin levels, which convert glucose to fat

Question 23

Hunger and Weight Regulation: Eating Disorders - Anorexia nervosa

Answer 23

*eating disorder involving a severely restricted food intake **Often perfectionists who strive to live up to lofty self-standards

Question 24

Hunger and Weight Regulation: Eating Disorders - Bulimia nervosa

Answer 24

*eating disorder involving binge eating followed by a purging of the food **Often depressed and anxious, exhibit low impulse control, and lack a stable sense of personal identity and self-sufficiency

Question 25

Hunger and Weight Regulation: Eating Disorders - Causes

Answer 25

*Caused by environmental, psychological, and biological factors **More common in industrialized countries in which beauty is equated with thinness **Genetic factors may create a predisposition toward eating disorders **Many researchers believe that physiological changes are a response to abnormal eating patterns ***Once started, the physiological changes perpetuate eating irregularities

Question 26

Sexual Motivation: Sexual Behaviour: Patterns and changes

Answer 26

*70% of 18-59 year old people were found to have sex with a partner at least a few times per month. *Single adults who cohabit are the most sexually active, followed by married adults, and single adults are the least. *Men fantasize about sex more often than women do.

Question 27

Sexual Motivation: The Physiology of Sex - Sexual response cycle

Answer 27

*four stage cycle experienced during sexual arousal **Excitement phase ? arousal builds rapidly **Plateau phase ? respiration, heart rate, vasocongestion, and muscle tension continue to build until there is enough muscle tension to trigger orgasm **Orgasm phase ? males: rhythmic contractions of internal organs and muscle tissue surrounding the urethra project semen, females: rhythmic contractions of the outer third vagina, surrounding muscles, and uterus **Resolution phase ? physiological arousal decreases rapidly and the genital organs and tissue return to normal condition **Refractory period (male only) ? period where orgasm is temporarily incapable of occurring

Question 28

Sexual Motivation: The Physiology of Sex - Hormonal Influences

Answer 28

*Hypothalamus control pituitary gland, which regulates secretion of hormones called gonadtrophins into bloodstream *Affect rate at which gonads secrete androgens (testosterone) and estrogens (estradiol) *Hormones have organizational effects that direct the development of male and female sex characteristics *Hormones have activational effects that stimulate sexual desire and behaviour

Question 29

Sexual Motivation: The Psychology of Sex - Sexual Fantasy

Answer 29

*Half of men and fifth of women fantasize about sex at least once a day *More sexually active people tend to fantasize more

Question 30

Sexual Motivation: The Psychology of Sex - Desire, Arousal, and Sexual Dysfunction

Answer 30

*Psychological factors can trigger and inhibit sexual arousal *Sexual dysfunction ? chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses a person

Question 31

Sexual Motivation: Cultural and Environmental Influences - Arousing Environmental Stimuli

Answer 31

A lover?s caress, watching partner undress, and erotic portrayals of sex can all trigger sexual desire in an instant.

Question 32

Sexual Motivation: Cultural and Environmental Influences - Pornography, Sexual Violence, and Sexual Attitudes

Answer 32

*Two psychological viewpoints are relevant to predicting pornography?s effects **Social learning theory ? people learn through observation ***Rape myths modeled in porn movies can teach people that it is acceptable **Catharsis principle ? as inborn aggressive and sexual impulses build up, actions that release this tension provide a catharsis that temporarily returns to a more balanced state ***Viewing porn should provide a safe outlet for releasing tension

Question 33

Sexual Motivation: Sexual Orientation

Answer 33

Refers to one?s emotional and erotic preference for partners of a particular sex

Question 34

Sexual Motivation: Sexual Orientation - Prevalence of Different Sexual Orientations

Answer 34

Modern researchers propose that sexual orientation has three dimensions: self-identity, sexual attraction, and actual sexual behavior

Question 35

Sexual Motivation: Sexual Orientation - Determinants of Sexual Orientation

Answer 35

*Researchers found one notable pattern among studies of homosexual and heterosexual *Even in childhood, homosexuals felt they were different from their same-sex peers, and were more likely to engage in non-gender-conforming activity

Question 36

Achievement Motivation: Need for achievement

Answer 36

represents the desire to accomplish tasks and attain standards of excellence

Question 37

Achievement Motivation: Motivation for Success: The Thrill of Victory

Answer 37

*People can strive to succeed for two radically different reasons: **Motive for success ? people are attracted to thrill of victory **Fear of failure

Question 38

Achievement Motivation: Fear of Failure: The Agony of Defeat

Answer 38

*Measured in psychological tests that ask people to report anxiety in achievement situations *Worry associated with fear of failure and performance avoidance goals impairs task performance

Question 39

Achievement Motivation: Achievement Needs and Situational Force

Answer 39

*People with strong need for achievement are ambitious and persist longer after encountering difficulties than others *In laboratory setting, high-need achievers do not outperform others with relaxed and easy tasks **Not true with challenging tasks *High-need achievers most likely to strive hard for success when they perceive themselves as personally responsible for outcome, perceive some risk of not succeeding, and there is an opportunity to receive performance feedback

Question 40

Achievement Motivation: Family and Cultural Influences

Answer 40

*High need for achievement develops when parents encourage and reward achievement, but don?t punish failure *Fear of failure develops when achievement is taken for granted by parents, but failure is punished

Question 41

Motivation in the Workplace: Why Do People Work?

Answer 41

*Earliest theory held that workers are motivated almost entirely by money **Research indicates that many more view personal accomplishment as most important job attribute *Research has found that job productivity and job satisfaction are weakly related

Question 42

Motivation in the Workplace: Enhancing Work Motivation ? Job enrichment programs

Answer 42

*attempt to increase intrinsic motivation by making jobs more fulfilling and providing workers with opportunities for growth **A job is most intrinsically motivating when it provides: ***Skill variety ? variety of tasks must be performed ***Task identity ? a whole product is completed ***Task significance ? have an impact on other people ***Autonomy ? freedom to determine work procedures ***Job feedback ? provides clear feedback on performance

Question 43

Motivation in the Workplace: Enhancing Work Motivation - Learning theory

Answer 43

predicts that performance will increase when reinforcers are made contingent on productivity

Question 44

Motivation in the Workplace: Enhancing Work Motivation - Goal setting

Answer 44

Goal setting is a powerful motivational technique that has increased employee productivity in almost every study

Question 45

Motivation in the Workplace: Enhancing Work Motivation - Management by objectives

Answer 45

*combines goal setting with employee participation and feedback **Employee participation ? employees meet at least once a year with managers to develop employee goals and plan how to attain them **Objective feedback provides opportunities to recognize success

Question 46

Motivational Conflict

Answer 46

Motivational goals can conflict with each other (choosing between studying or going to a party)

Question 47

Motivational Conflict: Approach-approach conflict

Answer 47

*involves opposition between two attractive alternatives (selecting one means losing the other) **Conflict is greatest when both alternatives are equally attractive

Question 48

Motivational Conflict: Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Answer 48

involves a person facing two undesirable alternatives

Question 49

Motivational Conflict: Approach-avoidance conflict

Answer 49

involves being attracted to and repelled by the same goal (a fourth-year student is attracted to job opportunities in a new major, but is repelled by a fifth year of classes)

Question 50

Motivational Conflict: Delay discounting

Answer 50

the decrease in value of a future incentive as a function of its distance in time *Ex: The motivations to study for Psych test is stronger if the test is tomorrow that id the test is next month

Question 51

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: Emotions

Answer 51

*positive or negative feeling states consisting of a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioural reactions **Concepts of motivation and emotion are closely linked *Emotions are form of social communication

Question 52

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Adaptive Value of Emotion - Emotions have important adaptive functions

Answer 52

*Signal that something important is happening, and shift attention to event *Increase chance of survival by energizing, directing, and sustaining adaptive behaviours

Question 53

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Adaptive Value of Emotion - Barbara Fredrickson

Answer 53

*suggests positive and negative emotions have different adaptive functions **Negative emotions narrow attention and action tendencies so that an organism can respond to a threatening situation with a focused set of responses **Positive emotions broaden thinking and behaviour so that we explore, consider new ideas, try out new ways to achieve goals, etc.

Question 54

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Adaptive Value of Emotion - Darwin

Answer 54

*claimed that the expression of emotion intensifies the experience, while Freud claimed that it reduced the experience **Studies show that highly aroused subjects show little expressiveness, supporting Freud?s theory

Question 55

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - Emotions all share four common features

Answer 55

*Emotions are responses to external or internal eliciting stimuli *Emotional responses result from our interpretation or cognitive appraisal of these stimuli *Our bodies respond physiologically to our appraisal *Emotions include behaviour tendencies, being either expressive (exhibiting surprise, smiling, crying, etc.) or instrumental (ways of doing something about the stimulus that aroused the emotion, eg. Studying for an anxiety arousing test)

Question 56

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - Electing Stimuli

Answer 56

*Emotions are responses to situations, people objects, or events *There can be internal (metal images/memories) and external Stimuli *Learning affects the ability of particular objects or people to arouse emotions **Example: little Albert who had learned a fear of white rats and other white furry objects (conditioning).

Question 57

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Cognitive Component

Answer 57

Cognitions are involved in every aspect of emotion

Question 58

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Cognitive Component - Appraisal Processes

Answer 58

*Appraisals relate to what we think is desirable or not desirable for us *Different appraisal processes cause different people to have different emotional reactions to the same situation

Question 59

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Cognitive Component - Culture and Appraisal

Answer 59

Appraisals influence both similar and different emotional experiences cross-culturally

Question 60

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Physiological Component - Brain Structure and Neurotransmitters - Physiological Components

Answer 60

*Subcortical structures (hypothalamus, amygdale, hippocampus) play major roles in emotion *Sensory input arrives at thalamus *Direct connection to amygdala activates emotions before cognitive processing *Connections to cerebral cortex activates perception and interpretation *Connections to amygdala activate emotions after cognitive processing *Cerebral cortex has many connections with hypothalamus and limbic system, allowing constant communication between cortical and subcortical regions **Ability to regulate emotion depends heavily on prefrontal cortex

Question 61

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Physiological Component - Brain Structure and Neurotransmitters - LeDoux (1996)

Answer 61

*Thalamus sends sensory input along two independent neural pathways **One directly to the amygdala ***emotional and behavioural reaction (unconscious) **One to the cerebral cortex ***conscious interpretation **Enables organism to respond quickly **Explains why people have different reactions than emotion they experience

Question 62

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Physiological Component - Brain Structure and Neurotransmitters - Evidence for the role of the amygdala

Answer 62

*Removal of visual cortex in rats did not impair classically conditioned fear response (LeDoux, 1989) *People with hippocampal damage (unable to learn a connection between CS and UCS) still acquire a fear response (Bechara et al., 1995) *Damaged amygdale can describe the CS and UCS relation, but cannot develop a conditioned fear response

Question 63

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Physiological Component - Hemispheric Activation and Emotion

Answer 63

*Evidence for left hemisphere activation underlying some positive emotions *Evidence for right hemisphere activation underlying some negative emotions

Question 64

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Physiological Component - Autonomic and Hormonal Processes

Answer 64

*Fight-or-flight response: produceced by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system which directly stimulates organs and muscles, and by the endocrine system, which pumps stress hormones into the bloodstream *Arousal patterns for basic emotions (e.g. anger,fear) may be different, but patterns for complex emotions (e.g. jealousy) may not

Question 65

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Behavioral Component - Expressive Behaviours

Answer 65

*observable behavioural indications of subjectively experienced emotions *Empathy ? the capacity for experiencing the same emotional response being exhibited by another person

Question 66

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Behavioral Component - Evolution and Emotional Expression - Darwin

Answer 66

Darwin argued that emotional displays are products of evolution, and they contribute to species survival

Question 67

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Behavioral Component - Evolution and Emotional Expression - Findings

Answer 67

*Two findings suggest humans have fundamental emotional patterns: **Expressions of certain emotions are similar across variety of cultures **Children who are blind from birth express basic emotions in same way as sighted children

Question 68

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Behavioral Component - Evolution and Emotional Expression - Hierarchy

Answer 68

*Emotions can be organized in terms of hierarchy ranging from most universal to more subtle **Most basic are positive and negative affect (interest and disinterest) **Basic emotions described by evolutionary theorists appear at second level **Third level consists of subtle emotions (love)

Question 69

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Behavioral Component - Facial Expression of Emotion

Answer 69

*Different parts of face provide best cues for recognizing various emotions **Eyes provide major cues for fear and sadness **Mouth provides cue for happiness and disgust **Forehead provides cue for surprise **Anger involves all areas

Question 70

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Behavioral Component - Cultural display rules

Answer 70

Cultural display rules ? norms for emotional expression in a given culture

Question 71

The Nature and Functions of Emotion: The Nature of Emotion - The Behavioral Component - Instrumental Behaviours

Answer 71

*Instrumental behaviours ? emotional coping behaviours that are directed at achieving the goal or performing the task that is relevant to the emotion **Fall into five broad categories: ***Moving toward others (love) ***Moving away from others (fear, revulsion) ***Moving against others (anger) ***Helplessness ***Submission *Relation between arousal and performance depends on arousal level and task complexity *Higher task complexity requires lower arousal for maximum performance

Question 72

Theories of Emotion: The James-Lange Somatic Theory

Answer 72

*Somatic theory of emotions ? emphasizes the causal role of bodily responses in experiencing of emotion **Physiological reactions determine emotion (e.g. crying causes us to feel sad) **Eliciting stimulus > autonomic response > perception of emotion

Question 73

Theories of Emotion: The Cannon-Bard Theory

Answer 73

*People?s bodies do not respond instantaneously to emotional stimulus, yet people experience emotion immediately **Proposed that when we encounter emotional situation, thalamus sends messages to both cortex and body?s organs **Eliciting stimulus > thalamus > autonomic response AND conscious emotion

Question 74

Theories of Emotion: The Cannon-Bard Theory - The Role of Autonomic Feedback

Answer 74

Animals that were severed were found to still exhibit emotional responses, supporting his theory over that of James and Lange.

Question 75

Theories of Emotion: The Cannon-Bard Theory - Facial feedback hypothesis

Answer 75

*feedback to brain from face might play a key role in determining the nature and intensity of emotion that we experience **Positive or negative emotional responses can be triggered by contractions of specific face muscles **Vascular theory of emotional feedback ? tensing facial muscles alters temperature of blood entering brain by controlling volume of air inhaled by nose ***Cooling blood causes positive effect ***Warming blood causes negative effect

Question 76

Theories of Emotion: Cognitive-Affective Theories

Answer 76

*Strong emphasis in link between cognitive appraisal and arousal **All emotional responses require some sort of appraisal *Emotional response depends on how environmental stimuli is interpreted *Lazarus?s theory ? eliciting stimulus > appraisal of stimulus > bodily arousal *Schachter?s two-factor theory of emotion ? arousal and cognitive labeling based on situational cues are the critical ingredients in emotional experience **Eliciting stimulus >appraisal > bodily arousal > (determines intensity of) >perception of emotion **Intensity of arousal tells us strength of emotion, but situational cues tell us what the emotion is **Subjects were injected with epinephrine (increases arousal), no emotion produced unless subjects are exposed to emotional stimulus