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physiology last year > Chapter 11: Endocrinology and Metabolism > Flashcards

Chapter 11: Endocrinology and Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

the endocrine system is best used when signaling needs to occur _______ ________ ________, to diffuse recipients for long-lived actions

A

over large distances

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2
Q

similarities between endocrine and neural system

A

both use chemical messengers for signaling
both operate in a stimulus-response manner

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3
Q

chemical messenger for neural system

A

neurotransmitter

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4
Q

chemical messenger for endocrine system

A

hormone

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5
Q

differences between endocrine and neural system

A

signaling specificity
signaling speed
(neural needs quicker speed)

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6
Q

endocrine glands produce hormones that go straight to the ________

A

bloodstream

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7
Q

secrete hormones into the internal environment without ductal structures (secretes directly into the blood)
lots of vascularization
ductless glands secrete hormones

A

endocrine gland

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8
Q

a single endocrine gland can secrete ________ hormones

A

multiple

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9
Q

the endocrine system is one of the ______ major control systems in the body

A

two, the other one is nervous system

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10
Q

a chemical acting as a hormone in the endocrine system may serve as a __________ in the nervous system or as an _______/_______ agent

A

neurotransmitter; autocrine/paracrine

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11
Q

3 chemical classes of hormones

A

amines (thyroid hormones and catecholamines)
peptide and protein hormones
steroid hormones and vitamin derivatives

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12
Q

hormone derived from the amino acid tyrosine
water soluble
has 2 types

A

amine

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13
Q

2 types of amine hormones

A

thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine)

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14
Q

amine hormones that are produced by adrenal glands and released in the medulla
dopamine is released by the brain

A

catecholamines

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15
Q

steps of peptide hormone synthesis and how peptide hormones are released

A

1.) synthesis of preprohormones on ribosomes
2.) cleavage to prohormones in rough ER
3.) packaged into secretory vesicles by Golgi apparatus; cleaved again to yield active hormone
4.) remaining peptides are secreted along with hormone; may have hormonal effects
*enter/exit lipid bilayer via endocytosis/exocytosis

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16
Q

hydrophobic and water soluble hormone
produced by adrenal cortex, gonads, and skin

A

steroid hormones

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17
Q

molecule from which all steroid hormones are synthesized

A

cholesterol (it’s the precursor)

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18
Q

zona glomerulosa tissue produces ________

A

aldosterone

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19
Q

zona fasciculata tissue produces ________ and ________

A

cortisol; small amounts of androgens

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20
Q

zona reticularis tissue produces ________ and ________

A

androgens; small amounts fo cortisol

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21
Q

biological women cannot produce cortisol, so it shifts to male hormones

A

masculinization

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22
Q

no 17-hydroprogesterone, no

A

cortisol

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23
Q

steroid hormone produced by the gonads: in testes, ___________ is the precursor of major male androgen testosterone

A

androstenedione

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24
Q

steroid hormone produced by the gonads: in ovaries, the enzyme __________ converts testosterone into the major female sex hormone __________

A

aromatase; estradiol

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25
Q

steroid hormones produced by the skin

A

vitamin D

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26
Q

_______ ________ of vitamin D from cholesterol is dependent on sun exposure

A

dermal synthesis

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27
Q

hormones that are transported by catecholamines and free
readily dissolve in plasma
water soluble - most circulate unbound in the plasma, then bind to receptor

A

catecholamines and peptides

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28
Q

hormones that are transported bound to carrier protein
do not readily dissolve in plasma
lipid soluble, circulate in the plasma bound to carrier protein, then diffuse across cell membrane

A

steroid and thyroid hormones

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29
Q

free hormone + bound hormone = _________

A

total amount of non-water-soluble hormone in the blood

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30
Q

the concentration of free hormone is more important than the amount of total hormone because only the free hormone can diffuse across the ________ ______ and reach ________ ______

A

capillary walls; target cells

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31
Q

routes/mechanisms of hormone removal from the blood

A

enzymatic degradation, which usually occurs in liver cells
removal of the hormone from the blood either by its excretion by the kidneys or by its uptake into target cells

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32
Q

hormone measurement: antibody captures hormone onto an immobilized surface with a second antibody coupled to a chemiluminescent or radioactive signals for detection
ELIZA, RIAA

A

antibody capture

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33
Q

hormone concentration in the blood is controlled by the rate of its ________ by the endocrine gland and the rate of its ________ from the blood

A

secretion; clearance

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34
Q

rate of removal by metabolism or excretion

A

clearance

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35
Q

inputs to endocrine cells that influence hormone secretion

A

changes in the plasma concentrations of mineral ions or organic nutrients,
neurotransmitters released from neurons ending on the endocrine cell,
another hormone acting on the endocrine cell

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36
Q

location of receptors of peptide and catecholamine hormones

A

plasma membrane (cell membrane)

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37
Q

receptors of peptide and catecholamine hormones exert their effects of target cells by influencing the generation of _______ ________ __________

A

intracellular 2nd messenger molecules

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38
Q

location of receptors for steroid and thyroid hormones

A

intracellular (inside cell/nucleus)

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39
Q

low hormone levels may cause _________ receptor density

A

increased (up regulation), want more receptors with low levels

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40
Q

high hormone levels may cause ________ receptor density

A

decreased (down regulation), want less receptors with high levels

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41
Q

some hormones can up-regulate or down-regulate the density of receptors for other hormones
one hormone must be present for another hormone to have its full effect

A

permissiveness

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42
Q

permissiveness: epinephrine + thyroid hormone =

A

large amounts of fatty acids released

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43
Q

pituitary location

A

sticks out from the base of the brain and lies in the pocket of the sphenoid bone
connected by the infundibulum to the hypothalamus

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44
Q

2 lobes of pituitary

A

anterior pituitary gland (front)
posterior pituitary gland (back)

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45
Q

adenohypophysis
makes hormones
derived from same tissue as the roof of mouth

A

anterior pituitary

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46
Q

special capillary circulation allows chemical signaling agents from neuron in the hypothalamus to circulate into the ________ ________, closed circulation system

A

anterior pituitary

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47
Q

neurohypophysis
stores hormones
derived from neural tissues

A

posterior pituitary

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48
Q

axons from neurons in hypothalamus project to capillaries in the _______ _______ and release their chemical signaling agents

A

posterior pituitary

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49
Q

posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized by neurons in the __________

A

hypothalamus

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50
Q

axons carry posterior pituitary hormones to posterior pituitary and release them into ________ _________

A

blood circulation

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51
Q

2 posterior pituitary hormones

A

oxytocin and vasopressin

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52
Q

posterior pituitary hormone that stimulates secretion/release of milk from breasts during lactation
stimulates contraction of uterine smooth muscle during labor
positive feedback loop - consistent creates more contract

A

oxytocin

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53
Q

stages of love in males, cuddle hormone released in orgasm

A

oxytocin

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54
Q

posterior pituitary hormone that stimulates contraction of smooth muscle in blood vessels and causes increased blood pressure
AKA antidiuretic hormone (ADH) because it decreases loss of water through kidneys

A

vasopressin

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55
Q

posterior pituitary hormones are also produced in other parts of the brain where they act as __________

A

neurotransmitters

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56
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary portal vessels carry hypothalamic hypophysiotropic hormones to the ________ ________

A

anterior pituitary

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57
Q

releasing factors of specific anterior pituitary hormones are ________

A

stimulated (turned on)

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58
Q

inhibiting factors of specific anterior pituitary hormones are _________

A

inhibited (turned off)

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59
Q

specific releasing and inhibiting factors of the anterior pituitary hormones reach the anterior pituitary through ___________

A

blood circulation, direct blood flow

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60
Q

specific releasing factors from __________ stimulates release of specific anterior pituitary hormone into the blood circulation

A

hypothalamus

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61
Q

anterior pituitary hormone secretes a _______ _______ ______ to release a hormone into the blood circulation

A

third endocrine gland

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62
Q

hormone from the third endocrine gland acts on the _______ _______

A

target cells

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63
Q

stimulus events that occur when a releasing factor goes from the hypothalamus to the pituitary, endocrine organ, and then targets cell

A

stimulates hypothalamus to secrete hormone 1
causes plasma hormone 1 to increase (in hypo-pit portal vessels)
stimulates anterior pituitary to release/secrete hormone 2
causes plasma hormone 2 to increase
stimulates the third endocrine gland to secrete hormone 3
causes plasma hormone 3 to increase
causes target cells of hormone 3 to respond to the hormone 3

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64
Q

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
luteinizing hormone (LH)
functions: germ cell development
production of estrogen/progesterone in females
production of testosterone in males

A

gonadotropic hormones

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65
Q

growth hormone (GH)
functions: stimulates protein synthesis and lipid/carbohydrate metabolism in many tissues
stimulates secretion of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) from liver and other cells

A

somatotropin

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66
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
functions: stimulates thyroid to secrete thyroxin and triiodothyronine (T3 and T4)

A

thyrotropin

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67
Q

breast development and milk production
doesn’t directly affect it, but rather inhibits other hormones
decreases female fertility during breastfeeding (fertility decreases when breastfeeding)

A

prolactin

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68
Q

secretion of cortisol from adrenal cortex

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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69
Q

functions in humans not thoroughly understood

A

beta-lipotropin and beta-endorphin

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70
Q

stimulates release of ACTH (corticotropin)

A

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

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71
Q

stimulates secretion of growth hormone

A

growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

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72
Q

stimulates secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or thyrotropin)

A

thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

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73
Q

stimulates secretion of gonadotropins: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

A

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

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74
Q

inhibits release of growth hormone

A

somatostatin (SS)

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75
Q

tonically inhibits the secretion of prolactin
inhibits works in opposite manner, under inhibitory control

A

dopamine (prolactin-inhibiting hormone, PIH)

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76
Q

neural control of hypophysiotropic hormone release: many _______ and _______ neural inputs to hypothalamic neurons that release hypophysiotropic hormones

A

excitatory; inhibitory

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77
Q

third (final) hormone in sequence (increase in plasma hormone 3 step)
acts back on the hypothalamus to inhibit secretion of hypophysiotropic hormone (turns off)
acts back on the anterior pituitary to inhibit secretion of second hormone in sequence (turns off)

A

long-loop negative feedback

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78
Q

second hormone (from anterior pituitary) in sequence
acts back on the hypothalamus to inhibit secretion of hypophysiotropic hormone (turns off)

A

short-loop negative feedback

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79
Q

occurs when endocrine gland is secreting too little hormone
destruction of adrenal cortex leads to decreased cortisol secretion
dietary iodine deficiency leading to decreased thyroid hormone secretion

A

primary hyposecretion

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80
Q

occurs when there’s not enough pituitary tropic hormone to stimulate gland

A

secondary hyposecretion

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81
Q

occurs when hypothalamus releasing factors that stimulate pituitary tropic hormone are absent, which leads to reduction of both tropic factor and endocrine hormone

A

tertiary hyposecretion

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82
Q

occurs when gland secretes too much hormone

A

primary hypersecretion

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83
Q

occurs when too much pituitary tropic factor stimulates gland

A

secondary hypersecretion

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84
Q

occurs when too much hypothalamus releasing factor stimulates pituitary

A

tertiary hypersecretion

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85
Q

2 iodine-containing thyroid hormones, produced in the thyroid

A

T3 and T4

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86
Q

T3 is considered the major thyroid hormone because T4 is ________ to T3 in the target cells

A

converted

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87
Q

T4 is the major thyroid form in the ________, but not overall

A

blood

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88
Q

thyroid hormone synthesis

A

thyroid gland is bilobed and wraps around the trachea
the gland is active from fetal stage throughout adulthood
thyroid tissue consists of the follicles

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89
Q

structures consisting of cells surrounding a protein rich core
the functional units of the thyroid

A

follicles

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90
Q

steps of thyroid hormone synthesis

A
  1. iodide trapping (carried into follicular cells by Na)
  2. iodide efflux (diffusion into the cell)
  3. iodine organification (oxidizes into an iodine free radical and binds to thyroglobulin protein)
  4. coupling (phenolic ring of tyrosine is coupled to another diiodotyrosine to form T3 or T4)
  5. endocytosis (iodinated thyroglobulin is brought back into follicular cells
  6. cleavage (endocytic vesicles merge with lysosomes, proteolytic enzymes digest the thyroglobulin)
  7. release of T3 and T4 (into the blood)
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91
Q

what controls thyroid function

A

TSH level
long negative feedback loop where TH acting on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

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92
Q

elevate TSH level, decreased T4 levels

A

primary hypothyroidism

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93
Q

decreased TSH and T4 levels

A

secondary hypothyroidism

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94
Q

decreased TSH level, increased T4 levels

A

primary hyperthyroidism

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95
Q

increased TSH and T4 levels

A

secondary hyperthyroidism

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96
Q

thyroid hormone resistance

A

increased TSH and T4 levels

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97
Q

general actions of thyroid hormones: nuclei of most cells in body have thyroid hormone receptors that bind both T3 and T4
hormones act by inducing _______ _______ and _______ _______

A

gene transcription; protein synthesis

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98
Q

metabolic actions of thyroid hormones: TH stimulates carbohydrate absorption from intestine and fatty acid release from adipocytes
provides energy for ___________; heat production

A

Na+/K+ ATPases

99
Q

permissive actions of thyroid hormones: TH upregulates ____________ receptors (especially in heart and nervous system)

A

beta-adrenergic

100
Q

growth and development actions of thyroid hormones: TH required for production of ________ _________; absence retards growth
**especially important for nervous system

A

growth hormone

101
Q

result of increased metabolic rate and increased oxygen consumption
causes increase in heat production from increase in glycolysis

A

calorigenic effect

102
Q

syndrome that occurs when TH is absent in fetal development and results in poorly developed nervous system

A

cretinism

103
Q

refers to any condition where plasma TH is below normal levels
results in lower BMI
among most common endocrine conditions

A

hypothyroidism

104
Q

defect in thyroid gland (and hormone)
95% of all cases
caused by loss of functional thyroid tissue or inadequate iodine

A

primary hypothyroidism

105
Q

defect in anterior pituitary

A

secondary hypothyroidism

106
Q

defect in hypothalamus (TRH)

A

tertiary hypothyroidism

107
Q

low iodine deficiency leads to goiter, hypothyroidism, and cretinism
treatment: reversible with addition of iodine to diet

A

iodine-deficiency primary hypothyroidism

108
Q

caused by destruction of thyroid gland by T cells
treated with T4

A

autoimmune thyroiditis

109
Q

enlarged/expanded thyroid gland (super large neck)
due to high stimulation of thyroid gland due to high TSH levels
cannot produce T3 and T4

A

goiter

110
Q

happens when the thyroid gland makes too much thyroid hormone

A

hyperthyroidism

111
Q

causes of hyperthyroidism

A

hormone-secreting tumors (rare)
autoimmune disease (Graves’ disease)

112
Q

autoimmune disease
overproduction of thyroid hormone
most common in women
production of antibodies that activate TSH receptor leads to increased T3 and T4 and potentially goiter

A

Graves’ disease

113
Q

signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism

A

increased BMR (heart rate)
weight loss with increased appetite
heat intolerance
increased sympathetic nervous system activity
bulging eyes (due to immune attach on structures behind)

114
Q

treatments for hyperthyroidism

A

drugs that inhibit TH synthesis
surgical removal of thyroid
destruction of thyroid using radioactive iodine followed by TH supplementation

115
Q

element that is common to all stress responses

A

cortisol

116
Q

increased secretion of glucocorticoid hormone =

A

increased cortisol by adrenal cortex

117
Q

activation of sympathetic nervous system

A

increased release of epinephrine from adrenal medulla
increased hepatic and muscle glycogenolysis (provides quick source of glucose)
increased breakdown of adipose tissue triglyceride (provide a supply of glycerol for gluconeogenesis and of fatty acids for oxidation)
increased cardiac function (increased heart rate)
diversion of blood from viscera to skeletal muscles by vasoconstriction and vasodilation
increased lung ventilation by stimulating brain breathing centers and dilating airways

118
Q

the hormonal stress response is triggered by _______ inputs to the hypothalamus
activates the ____________ system

A

neural; CRH/ACTH/cortisol

119
Q

hormones other than CRH that are released during stress and can also stimulate ACTH secretion

A

vasopressin and cytokines

120
Q

chemical signaling agents secreted by immune cells (macrophages and lymphocytes)
link the endocrine stress response to immune system activation

A

cytokines

121
Q

basal cortisol levels are required to maintain

A

regulating blood pressure
cellular concentrations of enzymes required for metabolic homeostasis

122
Q

systemic anti-inflammatory and anti-immune functions of cortisol

A

inhibits production of leukotrienes and prostaglandins that promote inflammation

123
Q

in development, cortisol plays a role in the _________ of many tissues including brain, lungs, intestines
important for maternal stress

A

differentiation

124
Q

in stress, cortisol increases _________ _________ of amino acids, glucose, glycerol, and free fatty acids

A

plasma concentrations

125
Q

cortisol provides _____ when fasting
amino acids may be converted to glucose or used for ______ ______

A

fuel; tissue repair

126
Q

patients who are ill/recovering from surgery catabolize significant amounts of _______ ________

A

body protein

127
Q

children subjected to severe stress may exhibit ________ _______

A

retarded growth

128
Q

cortisol acts during stress to increase responsiveness of vascular smooth muscle to ___________ to maintain blood pressure

A

norepinephrine

129
Q

if cortisol levels are insufficient, a patient may exhibit _________

A

hypotension

130
Q

during stress, cortisol inhibits _________ and _________

A

growth; reproduction

131
Q

interaction between cortisol and cytokines insures that stress does not cause excessive _________ or _________ reactions

A

immune; inflammatory

132
Q

hormones that help maintain blood pressure

A

aldosterone, vasopressin, glucagon and growth hormones, beta-endorphin

133
Q

hormone that acts to retain sodium and excrete potassium

A

aldosterone

134
Q

hormone that acts to retain water and cause vasoconstriction

A

vasopressin

135
Q

hormones that plays roles in mobilization of energy stores

A

glucagon and growth hormones

136
Q

hormone who’s release may relate to pain relief

A

beta-endorphin

137
Q

prolonged elevation of cortisol may cause reduced _________, __________ of bone and muscle, and __________ immune system function

A

fertility; deterioration; compromised

138
Q

prolonged or repeated activation of sympathetic nervous system may contribute to development of __________ and __________

A

atherosclerosis; hypertension

139
Q

caused by destruction of adrenal gland tissue by tumors, diseases, and autoimmune attack
destroys multiple cell types in adrenal gland, often decreasing aldosterone levels
imbalances of water, sodium, and potassium in blood leads to hypotension
Addison’s disease

A

primary adrenal insufficiency

140
Q

caused by ATCH deficiency
arise from pituitary disease
adrenal cells are normal - disease is not as severe and hypotension does not occur

A

secondary adrenal insufficiency

141
Q

diagnosis of secondary adrenal insufficiency

A

definitive test is measurement of low cortisol levels in the blood

142
Q

treatment of secondary adrenal insufficiency

A

replacement of the missing cortisol (daily hydrocortisone tablets), lifelong management

143
Q

situation of chronically elevated cortisol levels in non-stressed individuals, may be primary or secondary (secondary more common)

A

Cushing’s syndrome

144
Q

symptoms of Cushing’s disease

A

uncontrolled catabolism of protein from bone, muscle, skin, etc.
cortisol-mediated immune suppression
hypertension

145
Q

most common cause of Cushing’s disease

A

prolonged clinical use of glucocorticoids to reduce inflammation

146
Q

treatment of Cushing’s disease

A

decreasing intake of glucocorticoids or tumor removal

147
Q

3 factors that influence growth

A

genetics, environmental factors, endocrine function

148
Q

bone growth determines _________

A

height

149
Q

collagen matrix in which calcium phosphate salts are deposited

A

bone

150
Q

structure of immature long bone

A

ends of bones are called ephysis, the rest is the shaft (diaphysis)

151
Q

cartilage junction between ends and shafts

A

epiphyseal growth plate

152
Q

calcium is stored in the ________ in the form of calcium hydroxyapatite

A

bones

153
Q

puts new cartilage down in the interior of the plate

A

chondrocytes

154
Q

converts cartilage to bone on the side of the growth plate next to the shaft

A

osteoblasts

155
Q

occurs when hormones of puberty convert plates to bone and stop growth

A

epiphyseal closure

156
Q

2 rapid periods of growth for height in children

A

first two years of life and puberty

157
Q

environmental factors influencing growth

A

adequate nutrition and freedom from disease

158
Q

adverse effects of malnutrition on growth are especially evident in _________

A

early life

159
Q

maternal malnutrition results in ___________

A

fetal growth retardation

160
Q

malnutrition during childhood can inhibit _______ and ____________

A

growth; intellectual development

161
Q

hormones/growth factors that influence growth

A

growth hormone
thyroid hormones
testosterone
estrogen
insulin
cortisol

162
Q

stimulates postnatal growth

A

growth hormone

163
Q

permissive for growth hormones and secretions and actions
permissive for development of the CNS

A

thyroid hormones

164
Q

stimulates growth at puberty (stimulates GH effects)
stimulates protein synthesis in males

A

testosterone

165
Q

stimulates secretion of growth hormone (GH) at puberty

A

estrogen

166
Q

inhibits growth

A

cortisol

167
Q

when and how growth hormones influence growth

A

GH stimulates pre-chondrocytes to differentiate into chondrocytes
chondrocytes secrete IGF-1
IGF-1 acts as autocrine/paracrine agent to cause chondrocytes and osteoblasts to become active

168
Q

causes of dwarfism

A

GH or IGf-1 insensitivity
low GH
low IGF-1

169
Q

short negative feedback loop control of GH release from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary

A

increase plasma GH leads to increase somatostatin release in hypothalamus and less GHRH

170
Q

long negative feedback loop control of GH release from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary

A

increased plasma IGF-1 leads to decreased anterior pituitary GH secretion and increase somatostatin release in hypothalamus and less GHRH

171
Q

diurnal fluctuations of GH in the blood (diurnal rhythms)

A

GH elevated when asleep and lower when awake

172
Q

sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) relation to growth/GH

A

cause the pubertal growth spurt
stimulate GH and IGF-I secretion
testosterone also increases protein synthesis (increase muscle mass)
end growth after puberty by “closing” growth plate

173
Q

insulin’s relation to growth/GH

A

insulin has general anabolic effects that inhibit protein degradation
also has direct positive effects on fetal growth

174
Q

thyroid hormone’s relation to growth/GH

A

thyroid hormone is required for synthesis of GH and growth-promoting effects of GH

175
Q

prolonged elevation of cortisol in illness/stress or with use of glucocorticoid therapy can _______ _______

A

inhibit growth

176
Q

effects of prolonged cortisol elevation in illness/stress or prolonged glucocorticoid therapy

A

decreased DNA synthesis
stimulated protein catabolism (breakdown of molecules into monomers)
inhibition of bone growth and degradation of existing bone
inhibition of GH secretion

177
Q

a rapid growth spurt that children may undergo if their normal growth was temporarily inhibited due to malnutrition or illness

A

compensatory growth

178
Q

enlargement and broadening of bones and other organs
adulthood overprotection
skeletal thickness, hypertrophy of skin, organomegaly
disproportionate growth

A

acromegaly

179
Q

cause of acromegaly

A

excessive IGF-1 levels after epiphyseal growth plates have closed

180
Q

abnormally tall height
childhood overproduction
before closure of epiphysis and end of puberty
rapid and proportional growth

A

gigantism

181
Q

cause of gigantism

A

excessive levels of IGF-1 while epiphyseal growth plates are still open
due to slow-growing tumors of anterior pituitary

182
Q

treatment of gigantism

A

tumor removal

183
Q

glucose fate once taken up from the gut in the absorptive state

A

stored in adipose tissue
needed in almost all tissues
transformed to glycogen in muscle and liver

184
Q

triglycerides fate once taken up from the gut in the absorptive state

A

transformed to fatty acids and sent to adipose tissue

185
Q

amino acids fate once taken up from the gut in the absorptive state

A

transformed to proteins in muscle
transformed in liver to triglycerides (aka fat)

186
Q

to maintain glucose for CNS,
glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis generate ________ _________
while non-neural cells switch to use _____ for fuel rather than glucose (“sparing”)

A

plasma glucose; fats

187
Q

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

A

glycogenolysis

188
Q

formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources

A

gluconeogenesis

189
Q

2 most important hormones to play a role in the shifts in energy sources between the absorptive and postabsorptive states

A

insulin and glucagon

190
Q

major glucose counter regulatory controls that oppose the action of insulin

A

GLUCAGON
epinephrine
cortisol
growth hormone

191
Q

how glucagon inhibits insulin

A

acts on liver to increase
gluconeogenesis
glycogenolysis
ketone synthesis

192
Q

glucagon release is governed by ________ ________ _______

A

plasma glucose levels

193
Q

major stimulus of glucagon release

A

decrease in blood glucose

194
Q

increased glucagon release is a major factor in shift to ____________

A

the post absorptive period

195
Q

caused by a lack of insulin production and can result in a state similar to uncontrolled postabsorption

A

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

196
Q

caused by a resistance to the effects of insulin and is often a consequence of obesity

A

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

197
Q

low blood sugar
caused by excess insulin
and liver disease affecting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

A

hypoglycemia

198
Q

symptoms of hypoglycemia from sympathetic nervous system activation

A

increased heart rate, sweating, anxiety, trembling

199
Q

symptoms of hypoglycemia from CNS glucose deprivation

A

headache, confusion, dizziness, slurred speech, lack of coordination, serious convulsions/coma

200
Q

sources of cholesterol in the body

A

diet (animal products)
liver and GI tract produce the most cholesterol
almost all cells can synthesize cholesterol

201
Q

role of the liver in control of cholesterol levels

A

major regulator of plasma cholesterol by controlling how much cholesterol the liver is producing

202
Q

saturated fatty acids in diet increase ________

A

cholesterol

203
Q

good cholesterol

A

LDL

204
Q

bad cholesterol

A

HDL

205
Q

LDL:HDL ratio

A

signifies ones health in relation to cholesterol (aka risk of heart attack)

206
Q

factors influencing LDL:HDL ratio

A

smoking
weight
exercise
estrogen

207
Q

Prohormone

A

Longer protein or peptide that is cleaved into shorter ones, at least one of which is a peptide protein hormone

208
Q

Organ most dependent on glucose

A

Brain

209
Q

Contraception most likely to happen ____ days before ovulation and ____ days after

A

5,1

210
Q

During ovulation, ovum/ova from ovary enters through fallopian tube and travels towards uterus

A

If fallopian tubes were cut, ova would not reach uterus from ovary

211
Q

Dominant follicle established

A

Day 5-7 of menstrual cycle

212
Q

Day 1-14: follicular phase
Day 14: ovulation
Day 14-28: luteal phase, corpus luteum is formed then degenerates

A
213
Q

Follicular phase of ovaries

A

Menstrual and proliferating phases of uterus

214
Q

Absence of thyroid hormones in fetal development

A

Congenital hypothyroidism

215
Q

Acrosome reaction triggered by

A

Binding of the heads of sperm to the zona pellucida

216
Q

Puberty is triggered by

A

Increased production of GnRH

217
Q

Peptide vs steroid hormone receptor location

A

Peptide: binds to receptors on cell membranes
Steroids: binds to intracellular receptors

218
Q

One hormone must be present for another hormone to have it’s full effect

A

Permissiveness

219
Q

Increased prolactin has what effect

A
220
Q

Declining levels of estrogen and progesterone will not interfere with plans to lactate because

A

Secretion of oxytocin and prolactin are more important for lactation

221
Q

CRH (stress) stimulates release of ACTH

A
222
Q

Thyroid hormones stimulate carb absorption from intestine and fatty acid release from adipocytes

A
223
Q

Absorptive state

A

Nutrients enter the blood

224
Q

Iodine deficiency leads to

A

low iodine -> low TH ->
negative feedback mediated
increased release of TRH
&TSH
– increased TRH ->TSH
elevation -> stimulation of
thyroid growth -> goiter

225
Q

Stress response

A

increased secretion
of the glucocorticoid
hormone cortisol by
adrenal cortex

The hormonal stress
response is triggered by
neural inputs to the
hypothalamus.
• It activates the
CRH/ACTH/cortisol
system

226
Q

Calcium is the most in the

A

Bones

227
Q

GnRH is highest in

A

Adolesence

228
Q

Feedback control of GH
secretion from pituitary (Fig.
11-29)
– Hypothalamus secretes GH
releasing factor (GHRH) and
somatostatin (SS).
– GHRH stimulates GH release
from anterior pituitary.
– SS inhibits GH release from
pituitary

A
229
Q

Drugs that inhibit vasodilation have what effect on male reproduction

A

Erection may be inhibited

230
Q

Hypercalcemia

A

High amount of calcium

231
Q

Sertoli cell functions

A

Form barrier to chemicals in bloodstream
Nourish sperm
Secrete inhibin
Phagocytoses defective sperm

Does not convert estrogens into testosterone

232
Q

Leydig cells produce

A

Testosterone

233
Q

Parturition

A

Delivery of infant and placenta

234
Q

Look for ectopic pregnancy in

A

Fallopian tubes

235
Q

SRY

A

Protein normally coded by a gene that is present on the Y chromosome

236
Q

Antagonist to hCG receptor

A

Degeneration of corpus luteum and declining levels of estrogen and progesterone

237
Q

Menstrual cycle

A

Progesterone is low during first half, then rises to a peak in second half

238
Q

Luteal phase

A

Estrogen concentration is high, but progesterone concentration rises even higher

239
Q

A hormone may be

A

Inactivated by its target cell
Activated by its target cell
Inactivated by nontarget cells
Excreted before it has a chance to act on a target cell

240
Q

Hormones that influence secretion of other hormones

A

Tropic

241
Q

If the adrenal glands were removed from a patient, his plasma cortisol levels would
______, secretion of
CRH by the ______ would
______, and
secretion of ACTH by the _____ would _______

A

decrease; hypothalamus; increase; adenohypophysis;
increase

242
Q

What can you find in the blood when you’re extremely stressed out

A

Increased secretion of corticotropin from the anterior pituitary

243
Q

Result of hypersecretion of growth hormone

A

Acromegaly

244
Q

If pituitary gland is removed from a human

A

The adrenal gland will atrophy and plasma cortisol levels will be reduced

physiology last year (4 decks)

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