Chapter 10: The respiratory system Flashcards
The respiratory system
The cells of the body need energy for all their metabolic activities. Most of this energy is derived from chemical reactions, which can only take place in the presence of oxygen (O2). The main waste product of these reactions is carbon dioxide (CO2). The respiratory system provides the route by which the supply of oxygen present in the atmospheric air enters the body, and it provides the route of excretion for carbon dioxide.
The organs of the respiratory system
Blood provides the transport system for O2 and CO2 between the lungs and the cells of the body. The exchange of gases between the blood and the lungs is called external respiration and that between the blood and the cells internal respiration. The organs of the respiratory system are:
- nose
- pharynx
- larynx
- trachea
- two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)
- bronchioles and smaller air passages
- two lungs and their coverings, the pleura
- muscles of breathing – the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
Nose and Nasal cavity (position and structure)
- The nasal cavity is the main route of air entry and consists of a large irregular cavity divided into two equal passages by a septum. The posterior bony part of the septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer. Anteriorly, it consists of hyaline cartilage.
- The roof is formed by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and the sphenoid bone, frontal bone, and nasal bones.
- The floor is formed by the roof of the mouth and consists of the hard palate in front and the soft palate behind. The hard palate is composed of the maxilla and palatine bones and the soft palate consists of involuntary muscle.
- The medial wall is formed by the septum.
- The lateral walls are formed by the maxilla, the ethmoid bone, and the inferior conchae.
- The posterior wall is formed by the posterior wall of the pharynx.
The lining of the nasal cavity
The nasal cavity is lined with very vascular ciliated columnar epithelium (ciliated mucous membrane, respiratory mucosa) which contains mucus-secreting goblet cells. At the anterior nares, this blends with the skin and posteriorly it extends into the nasal part of the pharynx (the nasopharynx).
Openings into the nasal cavity
•The anterior nares, or nostrils, are the openings from the exterior into the nasal cavity. Nasal hairs are found here, coated in sticky mucus.
•The posterior nares are the openings from the nasal cavity into the pharynx.
•The paranasal sinuses are cavities in the bones of the face and the cranium, containing air. There are tiny openings between the paranasal sinuses and the nasal cavity. They are lined with mucous membrane, continuous with that of the nasal cavity. The main sinuses are:
-maxillary sinuses in the lateral walls
-frontal and sphenoidal sinuses in the roof
-ethmoidal sinuses in the upper part of the lateral walls.
Respiratory function of the nose
The nose is the first of the respiratory passages through which the inspired air passes. In the nasal cavity, the air is warmed, moistened, and filtered. The three projecting conchae increase the surface area and cause turbulence, spreading inspired air over the whole nasal surface. The large surface area maximizes warming, humidification, and filtering.
Warming
The immense vascularity of the mucosa permits rapid warming as the air flows past. This also explains the large blood loss when a nosebleed (epistaxis) occurs.
Filtering and cleaning
Hairs at the anterior nares trap larger particles. Smaller particles such as dust and bacteria settle and adhere to the mucus. Mucus protects the underlying epithelium from irritation and prevents drying. The synchronous beating of the cilia wafts the mucus towards the throat where it is swallowed or coughed up (expectorated).
Humidification
As air travels over the moist mucosa, it becomes saturated with water vapor. Irritation of the nasal mucosa results in sneezing, a reflex action that forcibly expels an irritant.
The sense of small
The nose is the organ of the sense of smell (olfaction). Specialized receptors that detect smell are in the roof of the nose in the area of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bones and the superior conchae. These receptors are stimulated by airborne odors. The resultant nerve signals are carried by the olfactory nerves to the brain where the sensation of smell is perceived.
Pharynx (position)
The pharynx (throat) is a passageway about 12–14 cm long. It extends from the posterior nares and runs behind the mouth and the larynx to the level of the 6th thoracic vertebra, where it becomes the esophagus
Structures associated with the pharynx
- Superiorly – the inferior surface of the base of the skull
- Inferiorly – it is continuous with the esophagus
- Anteriorly – the wall is incomplete because of the openings into the nose, mouth, and larynx
- Posteriorly – areolar tissue, involuntary muscle, and the bodies of the first six cervical vertebrae.
- For descriptive purposes, the pharynx is divided into three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
The nasopharynx
The upper part of the pharynx, connecting with the nasal cavity above the soft palate.
The oropharynx
The part of the pharynx that lies between the soft palate and the hyoid bone.
The laryngopharynx
The laryngeal part of the pharynx extends from the oropharynx above and continues as the esophagus below, with the larynx lying anteriorly.
Mucous membrane lining
The mucosa varies slightly in the different regions. In the nasopharynx it is continuous with the lining of the nose and consists of the ciliated columnar epithelium; in the oropharynx and laryngopharynx, it is formed by tougher stratified squamous epithelium, which is continuous with the lining of the mouth and esophagus. This lining protects underlying tissues from the abrasive action of foodstuffs passing through during swallowing.
Submucosa
The layer of tissue below the epithelium (the submucosa) is rich in mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, involved in protection against infection. Tonsils are masses of MALT that bulge through the epithelium. Some glandular tissue is also found here.
Smooth muscle
- The pharyngeal muscles help to keep the pharynx permanently open so that breathing is not interfered with. Sometimes in sleep, and particularly if sedative drugs or alcohol have been taken, the tone of these muscles is reduced and the opening through the pharynx can become partially or totally obstructed. This contributes to snoring and periodic awakenings, which disturb sleep.
- Constrictor muscles close the pharynx during swallowing, pushing food and fluid into the esophagus.
Blood and nerve supply
- Blood is supplied to the pharynx by several branches of the facial artery. The venous return is into the facial and internal jugular veins.
- The nerve supply is from the pharyngeal plexus and includes both parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves. Parasympathetic supply is by the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves. The sympathetic supply is by nerves from the superior cervical ganglia.
Passageway for air and food
The pharynx is involved in both the respiratory and the digestive systems: air passes through the nasal and oral sections and food through the oral and laryngeal sections.
Warming and humidifying
By the same methods as in the nose, the air is further warmed and moistened as it passes towards the lungs.
Hearing
The auditory tube, extending from the nasopharynx to each middle ear, allows air to enter the middle ear. This leads to air in the middle ear being at the same pressure as the outer ear, protecting the tympanic membrane (eardrum) from any changes in atmospheric pressure.
Protection
The lymphatic tissue of the pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produces antibodies in response to swallowed or inhaled antigens. The tonsils are larger in children and tend to atrophy in adults.
Speech
The pharynx functions in speech; by acting as a resonating chamber for sound ascending from the larynx, it helps (together with the sinuses) to give the voice its individual characteristics.
Larynx (position)
The larynx or ‘voice box’ links the laryngopharynx and the trachea. It lies in front of the laryngopharynx and the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae. Until puberty, there is little difference in the size of the larynx between the sexes. Thereafter, it grows larger in the male, which explains the prominence of the ‘Adam’s apple’ and the generally deeper voice.
Structures associated with the larynx
- Superiorly – the hyoid bone and the root of the tongue
- Inferiorly – it is continuous with the trachea
- Anteriorly – the muscles attached to the hyoid bone and the muscles of the neck
- Posteriorly – the laryngopharynx and 3rd–6th cervical vertebrae
- Laterally – the lobes of the thyroid gland.
Cartilages
The main cartilages are:
- 1 thyroid cartilage
- 1 cricoid cartilage
- 2 arytenoid cartilages
- 1 epiglottis
The thyroid cartilage
- This is the most prominent of the laryngeal cartilages. Made of hyaline cartilage, it lies to the front of the neck. Its anterior wall projects into the soft tissues of the front of the throat, forming the laryngeal prominence or Adam’s apple, which is easily felt and often visible in adult males. The anterior wall is partially divided by the thyroid notch. The cartilage is incomplete posteriorly and is bound with ligaments to the hyoid bone above and the cricoid cartilage below.
- The upper part of the thyroid cartilage is lined with stratified squamous epithelium like the larynx, and the lower part with ciliated columnar epithelium like the trachea. There are many muscles attached to its outer surface.
- The thyroid cartilage forms most of the anterior and lateral walls of the larynx.
The cricoid cartilage
This lies below the thyroid cartilage and is also composed of hyaline cartilage. It is shaped like a signet ring, completely encircling the larynx with the narrow part anteriorly and the broad part posteriorly. The broad posterior part articulates with the arytenoid cartilages and with the thyroid cartilage. It is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium and there are muscles and ligaments attached to its outer surface. The lower border of the cricoid cartilage marks the end of the upper respiratory tract.
The arytenoid cartilages
These are two roughly pyramid-shaped hyaline cartilages situated on top of the broad part of the cricoid cartilage forming part of the posterior wall of the larynx. They give attachment to the vocal cords and to muscles and are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium.
The epiglottis
This is a leaf-shaped fibroelastic cartilage attached on a flexible stalk of cartilage to the inner surface of the anterior wall of the thyroid cartilage immediately below the thyroid notch. It rises obliquely upwards behind the tongue and the body of the hyoid bone. It is covered with stratified squamous epithelium. If the larynx is likened to a box, then the epiglottis acts as the lid; it closes off the larynx during swallowing, protecting the lungs from the accidental inhalation of foreign objects.
Blood and nerve supply of the larynx
- Blood is supplied to the larynx by the superior and inferior laryngeal arteries and drained by the thyroid veins, which join the internal jugular vein.
- The parasympathetic nerve supply is from the superior laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal nerves, which are branches of the vagus nerves. The sympathetic nerves are from the superior cervical ganglia, one on each side. These provide the motor nerve supply to the muscles of the larynx and sensory fibers to the lining membrane.
Interior of the larynx
The cavity of the larynx extends from its triangle-shaped inlet to the epiglottis, and to the circular outlet at the lower border of the cricoid cartilage, where it is continuous with the lumen of the trachea. The mucous membrane lining the larynx forms two pairs of lateral folds that project inward into its cavity.
Production of sound
Sound has the properties of pitch, volume, and resonance.
- Pitch of the voice depends upon the length and tightness of the cords. Shorter cords produce higher-pitched sounds. At puberty, the male vocal cords begin to grow longer, hence the lower pitch of the adult male voice.
- Volume of the voice depends upon the force with which the cords vibrate. The greater the force of expired air, the more strongly the cords vibrate and the louder the sound emitted.
- Resonance, or tone, is dependent upon the shape of the mouth, the position of the tongue and the lips, the facial muscles, and the air in the paranasal sinuses.
Speech
This is produced when the sounds produced by the vocal cords are amplified and manipulated by the tongue, cheeks, and lips.
Protection of the lower respiratory tract
During swallowing the larynx moves upwards, blocking the opening into it from the pharynx. In addition, the hinged epiglottis closes over the larynx. This ensures that food passes into the esophagus and not into the trachea.
Passageway for air
The larynx links the pharynx above with the trachea below.
Humidifying, filtering, and warming
These processes continue as inspired air travels through the larynx.
Trachea (position)
The trachea or windpipe is a continuation of the larynx and extends downwards to about the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra where it divides at the carina into the right and left primary bronchi, one bronchus going to each lung. It is approximately 10–11 cm long and lies mainly in the median plane in front of the esophagus
Structures associated with the trachea
- Superiorly – the larynx
- Inferiorly – the right and left bronchi
- Anteriorly – upper part: the isthmus of the thyroid gland; lower part: the arch of the aorta and the sternum
- Posteriorly – the esophagus separates the trachea from the vertebral column
- Laterally – the lungs and the lobes of the thyroid gland.
The structure of the trachea
•The trachea wall is composed of three layers of tissue and is held open by between 16 and 20 incomplete (C-shaped) rings of hyaline cartilage lying one above the other. The rings are incomplete posteriorly where the trachea lies against the esophagus. The cartilages are embedded in a sleeve of smooth muscle and connective tissue, which also forms the posterior wall where the rings are incomplete.
•Three layers of tissue ‘clothe’ the cartilages of the trachea.
-The outer layer contains fibrous and elastic tissue and encloses the cartilages.
-The middle layer consists of cartilages and bands of smooth muscle that wind around the trachea in a helical arrangement. There is some areolar tissue, containing blood and lymph vessels and autonomic nerves. The free ends of the incomplete cartilages are connected by the trachealis muscle, which allows for adjustment of tracheal diameter.
•The lining is the ciliated columnar epithelium, containing mucus-secreting goblet cells.
Support and patency
Trachea cartilages hold the trachea permanently open (patent), but the soft tissue bands in between the cartilages allow flexibility so that the head and neck can move freely without obstructing or kinking the trachea. The absence of cartilage posteriorly permits the esophagus to expand comfortably during swallowing. Contraction or relaxation of the trachealis muscle, which links the free ends of the C-shaped cartilages, helps to regulate the diameter of the trachea.
Mucociliary escalator
This is the synchronous and regular beating of the cilia of the mucous membrane lining that wafts mucus with adherent particles upwards towards the larynx where it is either swallowed or coughed up.
Cough reflex
Nerve endings in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi are sensitive to irritation, which generates nerve impulses conducted by the vagus nerves to the respiratory center in the brain stem. The reflex motor response is deep inspiration followed by the closure of the glottis, i.e., closure of the vocal cords. The abdominal and respiratory muscles then contract to cause a sudden and rapid increase of pressure in the lungs. Then the glottis opens, expelling air through the mouth, taking mucus and/or foreign material with it.