Chapter 10: Internationalization and Indigenization of Psychology After World War II

Question 1

How did psychology change after WW2 as compared to before?

Answer 1

Prior to WW2 multiple centers
Labs in Leipzig, Berlin, London, Paris,and several universities in US
Multiple schools of psychology: Behavourism, Wundt, Psychoanalysis
Very contrasting, unique epistemology, methods and practices

Post WW2 US primary center for psychology
“American psychology” became “Psychology”
The multiple centers are meant to be two-way in sharing their information, this was no longer the case. Only exports from U.S.
This is still true today

Question 2

What changes were occurring globally in the post WW2 context?

Answer 2

Europe devastated post WW2
Post Colonialism: Independence - 40 new countries
Massive change: poverty, unemployment, conflict over independence, local politics and social customs
Resistance, Polycentric development by 1960s criticism of research and methodologies

Question 3

How did American dominance in psychology come to be?

Answer 3

American dominance in psychology was by design:
In July 1947, the United States announced the European Recovery Plan, more commonly known as the “Marshall Plan
Exported social sciences to Europe and other places to spread its influence
Infrastructure, labs, libraries rebuilt with American aid

Question 4

What were the criticisms of American Psychology?

Answer 4

Increasing criticism and retaliation against American research and methodologies
Experiment conducted in a vacuum social context neglected
Focus on individuals, responses studied in a temporarily contrived, unrealistic social context
Theories too individualistic and culture blind
In this context we see the emergence of indigenization psychology (adapted to fit locals)

Question 5

What was Western Psychology trying to accomplish in Non-Western Settings? Which ones?

Answer 5

Western psychology imported to help make the host country ‘modern.’ i.e. Western
Part of the colonization process.

• India
• Africa

Question 6

What did Western Psychology look like in India?

Answer 6

India
Psychology Institutionalized during the early 20th century
N. N. Sengupta: first psychological laboratory Calcutta University 1915
The Indian Psychological Association 1924
Indian Journal of Psychology 1926
Pre-British independence : Research mainly on reaction time, problems of illusion, and perceptual errors
The idea was to have services of “Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and intellect” this was a means of control

Question 7

Who was Jamuna Prasad and what did he contribute to Indian psychology?

Answer 7

Rumor research
Figured rumors developed and were constructed in a social context
Worked in the wake of a massive earth quake
Marked similarities in the thematic content of rumors across time and cultures
Four dimensions: that give it strength and allow it to spead
-Anxiety
-Cognitive uncertainty
-Search for cultural meaning
-Feeling of group identity or affiliation
Rumors essentially a social phenomenon

Question 8

What was the large-scale impact of Jamuna Prasad’s work?

Answer 8

Mainstream: individual level of analysis in rumor research in the lab

Festinger Prasad credited rumor research as seminal for his dissonance theory

Question 9

What did Western Psychology look like in Africa?

Answer 9

Africa: Exporting of Psychology in the colonial Era social Darwinist racist and discriminatory views of the psychological inferiority of Black Africans disguised as science
Psychology departments:
Western psychologies didn’t mesh with African world view
Used to enforce their values and control them
Post colonial Africans rejected formal disciplinary

Question 10

What did Western Psychology look like in South Africa?

Answer 10

South Africa: European settlers and domination
Problems in structure of Psychology and its epistemologies:
Used basic needs as rewards
Labor camps for psychiatric patients
People opposed to psychology
Disciplinary Psychology by 1920s used to support racist agenda
Applications to industry, business, and education
Mental testing
After World War II, psychologists contributed in designing and implementing apartheid laws and rules.

Question 11

Describe the power struggles of institutionalizing South African Psychology.

Answer 11

In South Africa
National psychological association 1948
Clinical and counselling psychology developing quite rapidly
SAPA all-White professional association till 1956
Psychological Institute of the Republic of South Africa all white members
A black member wished to join, they voted yes. This caused a split; people opposed created the:
Psychological Association of South Africa 1980s
The two associations later merged to create the:
Psychological Society of South Africa, after repeal of apartheid laws 1992

Question 12

Describe the power struggles between the U.S. and Soviet Union.

Answer 12

Post WW2
Decolonization era
The world was shifting to a Bipolar world with the U.S. as one power center and Soviet Union as the other
USSR wanted colonies
Fight between U.S. and Soviet Union over influence over now counties.
New countries had social and economic deficits, underdevelopment of education and institutions
Active resistance to imperialistic goals of destroying indigenous world views, local customs, “little p” psychologies and shaping the world
Reached out to social scientists to help Wersternize other countries

Question 13

What is Modernization theory?

Answer 13

Development on a historical arc, with traditional societies and modern societies at opposite end of the arc. Primarily linear and one way.

Traditional societies can become modern societies through the influence and resources of more modern ones and the end point for all societies is modernity.

Question 14

What is the Interventionist model? What kind of programs were implemented? To what end?

Answer 14

Agencies and institutions to impose influence
Marshall Plan
IMF
World Bank
USAID

Eventually homogenized world like United States
Modern social sciences followed suit, developed sciences of social management

Question 15

What happened when American/European trained psychologists from third world countries returned home?

Answer 15

Within this context
Local psychologists from third world doing scientific training in the American or Euro-American tradition, return home
Realization American psychology does not match local cultural reality, what they were leaning was not applicable
Disenchantment and determination to explore and establish a relevant/ fitting psychology

Question 16

Who was Gardener Murphy and what did he and his students contribute to Indian psychology?

Answer 16

In the context of post partition inter-communal tensions, violence and the largest mass migrations across the borders

He was a consultant to the government of India, supervise research on group tensions and promoting harmony
Published “In the Minds of Men”

His students David McClelland and David Winter
achievement motivation among Indian businessmen to promote their economy. Results not relevant at all (later research was completely contradictory).
Failure of psychological research based on replicating western research

Question 17

What is NAM? What did Jawaharlal Nehru ask Indian social scientists to do?

Answer 17

NAM to resist neo-colonialism and western domination
Psychologists started working on problems that were more relevant to their society

Jawaharlal Nehru asked Indian social scientists to address Indian problems: caste, rural poverty, and impact of Westernization
To develop theoretical understanding of Indian culture, and religion
Development of problem-oriented psychology by looking inward

Question 18

Who were the leaders in the development of Indian psychology?

Answer 18

Leaders in the development of Indian psychology
Durganand Sinha
Jai B. P. Sinha
J. Sinha and colleagues
Western leadership model not compatible in India
Nurturant–task model of leadership a blend of task orientation and nurturance

Question 19

Who was Durganand Sinha and what did they contribute to Indigenous Indian Psychology?

Answer 19

Studied problems in transitioning to new systems of Western agriculture, education, and communication
Importing the technology was not enough, psychologists need to understand villagers’ mindset
Application of psychology to problems like population control, health practices, poverty. Important and relvant to people
Journal Psychology and Developing Societies 1989

Third world countries or countries on the periphery were starting to assert their knowledge

Question 20

What is Indigenization from without and within?

Answer 20

Indigenization from without: principles and methods learned outside of India (American or European graduate schools) were re-evaluated and adjusted to fit the Indian or local context.
Indigenization from within: looking within ancient traditions, ex. the Vedas and Upanishads, texts that gave rise to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, for insights into human nature.

ex. techniques from yoga for stress management

Question 21

What is Relational Identity? What is counselling psychology?

Answer 21

Relational identity - People see themselves as part of a group: family, caste, community, nation

Counselling Psychology: involve the whole family
Gurus and swamis as mental health experts and counsellors through cable television

Question 22

Who were the two pioneers of Indigenous psychology in the Philippines?

Answer 22

Philippines: American colony from 1898 to 1946
Resentment and anger

Indigenous psychology responded to that
Two Pioneers:
Lagmay : PhD at Harvard in 1955 with Skinner
Virgilio Enriquez: PhD at Northwestern University of Evanston, Illinois
Lagmay and Enriquez created “sikolohiyang Pilipino”

Question 23

What is Sikolohiyang Pilipino?

Answer 23

Anticolonial approach

Movement away from the epistemology and methods of American psychology to methods more suited to the diverse cultures of the Philippines.
Filipino Psychology became a major force and an innovative conceptualization of the power of an indigenous approach to psychology.

Question 24

What were Indigenous Psychologies concerned with?

Answer 24

Focused more on their own culture and values:
Identity and national awareness
Social awareness and involvement
How to fight poverty
How to raise consciousness in people to develop themselves
How to neutralize the legacy of colonialism.
Language and culture
Research methods participatory observation, participant action, and qualitative unstructured interviews

Question 25

Indigenous Psychologies: Latin America

Answer 25

Psychology as a science established beginning of 20th century
Argentina first psychological laboratory established in 1891 - French influence
Mexico 1916
Brazil 1923 - French and German Influence
Teaching laboratories in schools
Experimental psychology laboratories appeared by 1960s

Question 26

How did psychology develop in South America?

Answer 26

Pronounced European influence
European psychologists and psychoanalysts immigrated to various South American countries
Many visited South American countries as guest lecturers or as visiting professors
Psychology gained recognition when applied to the problems and needs of each country

Question 27

Indigenous Psychologies: Latin America

Answer 27

After World War II, educational and training programs in psychology
Several countries had instituted programs that led to professional degrees and graduate work by 1960s

Question 28

Who was Helena Antipoff and what did she contribute to Indigenous Psychologies in Latin America?

Answer 28

Trained in Russia, worked in Brazil
Cultural–historical model of active learning applied to Brazilian primary and secondary education
Developed the concept of “Civilized Intelligence” distinct from innate intelligence. It is dependent on education and culture, social and economic background. Intelligence multifaceted
Soviet and Brazilian street children not feeble minded lack civilized Intelligence

Question 29

What is Liberation psychology?

Answer 29

A social movement in South and Central America that arose from protest against increasing poverty and marginalization of the poor.
It involved liberation theology in the Roman Catholic Church as well as a move toward the use of social science for social action; Christians need to pay attention to social justice, humans were seen as active instead of passive agents. Work to decrease poverty and towards social equality

Question 30

How did liberation theology in the Roman Catholic Church influence psychology?

Answer 30

Psychology should be doing the same: focus on needs of the peasants and serve as a liberatory force. Work for the needs of the poor.
Led to the development of community psychology as a new field within Psychology to solve problems. Psychologists should with and in the community - knowledge is a two-way process

Question 31

Who was Ignacio Martın-Baro and what did he contribute to Indigenous Psychologies in Latin America?

Answer 31

Social psychologist in El Salvador
and a Jesuit priest trained at University of Chicago

Strongly emphasized that psychology should address political goals.
Felt that what was happening in laboratories/middle-class private therapy offices was irrelevant
He started liberation psychology
He focused on psychological dimensions of political repression, impact of violence and trauma on child development
Assassinated by a Salvadoran right-wing death squad in 1989 along with 8 other people
Noam Chomsky has taken up his work

Question 32

Who was Paolo Freire and what did he contribute to Indigenous Psychology in Latin America?

Answer 32

Brazilian Liberation Psychology
Freire influenced new generation of community liberation psychologists
Liberation psychology worldwide movement by colonized and oppressed to decolonize their consciousness, and to free themselves from political and social oppression

Question 33

Who was Frantz Fanon and what did he contribute to Indigenous Psychology in North Africa?

Answer 33

Applied liberation psychology in North Africa
French trained psychologist employed in Nigeria.
Impact of oppressiveness of colonialism on psyche of Africans
Wrote “The Wretched of the Earth”
Felt that psychology should raise consciousness of oppressed people to challenge and change oppressive social structures.

Question 34

What was Freire’s concept of Conscientization?

Answer 34

To engage poor citizens through teaching them to read so that they recognize themselves as fully human, understand themselves as historical beings, and are able to think for themselves. Literacy required to vote. Ultimate goal should be to achieve social justice.