Chapter 10: Interest Groups Flashcards
Interest group
organization of people who share common interests and seek to influence government policy by electioneering and lobbying
Lobbying
efforts to influence public policy through contact with public officials on behalf of an interest group
Linkage institution
institutions such as political parties, interest groups, the media, and elections that facilitate communication between citizens and policymakers
How do pluralists see interest groups?
as important and appropriate participants in the democratic process
Interest group state
a government in which most policy decisions are determined by the influence of interest groups
True or false: interest groups’ influence is contextual and depends on a number of factors, but their importance in the political system is clear
True
Institutional interest groups
formed by nonprofits such as universities, think tanks, or museums
Businesses
for-profit enterprises that aim to influence policy in ways that benefit them
ex. Google, ExxonMobil
Trade or peak associations
groups of businesses (often in the same industry) that band together to lobby for policies that benefit all of them
Professional associations
represent individuals who have a common interest in a profession
ex. American Medical Association
Labor organizations
lobby for regulations that make it easy for workers to form labor unions, as well as other policies
Citizen groups
range from those with mass membership (such as the Sierra Club) to those that have no members but claim to speak for particular segments of the population
Interest group lobbying is regulated. How so?
must report their client, how much each client paid, and the issues the firms lobbied on
Why are there so many interest groups and registered lobbyists, and why are their numbers increasing?
federal government does so many things and spends so much money that there are strong incentives for lobbying
True or false: interest groups are more likely to form around issues that have high levels of government involvement or when new programs or changes in government policy are likely
True
What do lobbying expenditures pay for?
many things
salaries to hire top-level lobbyists like former Congressmen (largest expense), publicity, outreach, generating grassroots support
What type of group lobbies the most? The least?
most: business sector (health, finance, miscellaneous business, communication, energy/natural resources, transportation)
relatively little: political or public interests
Do interest groups really spend that much on lobbying?
nah. besides a few big spenders, most interest groups spend relatively little on lobbying
although the amount of $$ spent on it may seem like a lot, it’s small compared with how much is at stake
Two main models of interest group structure
centralized groups, confederation
Centralized groups
interest groups that have a headquarters, usually in Washington, D.C., as well as members and field offices throughout the country. in general, these groups’ lobbying decisions are made at headquarters by the group leaders
ex. AARP, NRA
Confederation
interest groups made up of several independent, local organizations that provide much of their funding and hold most of the power
ex. NIADA
Advantage and disadvantage of centralized groups
advantage: controls the group’s resources and can deploy them efficiently
disadvantage: can be challenging for these groups to find out what their members want
Advantage and disadvantage of confederations
advantage: independent state/local chapters makes it easy for national headquarters to learn what the members want
disadvantage: can have conflict within group
ex. state/local chapters mostly function independently of national headquarters but nat hq depends on them. also local chapters may disagree over what to lobby for
Cooling off rules
prevent govt officials from lobbying for 1 year after leaving their government job
Arguments to keep lobbying restrictions, and maybe tighten them
-small gifts to legislators create an advantage for interest groups that have a Washington office or hire lobbyists
-even if a fancy lunch doesn’t buy a legislator’s vote, it helps with access (chance for group to make its arguments and perhaps change some minds)
Arguments to relax lobbying restrictions (a little)
-interest group influence is overstated. legislators will support a group’s proposals only if they help the member’s constituents or if they move policy in a way the member favors, not just because of an interest group’s free lunch
-tights restrictions on lobbyists’ gifts create a lot of paperwork for legislators and their staff. so much time and effort for something that likely won’t affect policy in the first place
Arguments to relax some lobbying rules but strengthen others
getting rid of the cooling off periods but having better disclosure of who is lobbying will allow constituents to hold legislators accountable
Are some organizations are hard to categorize (as centralized group or confederation)?
Yes
ex. BLM
Two categories of interest group staff
- experts on the group’s main policy areas
ex. scientists, engineers - people with useful government connections and knowledge of procedures
ex. elected officials, bureaucrats, legislative staff
Revolving door
the practice of government employees becoming lobbyists after leaving their public positions
Iron triangle (or “issue networks” as a broader term)
informal alliance of elected officials, bureaucrats, and interest groups designed to let them dominate the policy-making process in a given area
How does the revolving door help iron triangles form?
people in different organizations are likely to know each other because of their prior service
Mass associations
interest groups that have a large number of dues-paying individuals as members. tend to be citizens’ groups and labor organizations
ex. the Sierra Club
Do all mass associations give members a say in selecting their leaders or determining their mission?
nope
ex. AARP doesn’t poll members to determine its issue positions, nor do members elect AARP leadership
Difference between mass associations and peak associations
member of peak associations are businesses, NOT people
Interest groups use what 3 key resources to support their lobbying efforts?
- people
-however, group must have members in the first place, and recruiting new members can be difficult and expensive - money
-well-funded groups have considerable advantage in lobbying, but spending more money is no guarantee of successful efforts - expertise
-increases merit of group’s demands and policy solutions. still individual lobbyists have varying knowledge of congressional preferences, persuasion tactics, etc.
True or false: interest groups face collective action problems
TRUE
cooperation is neither easy nor automatic. many people would see their contribution as minuscule if they joined the group, so they free ride instead
Interest groups solve collection action problems in what 3 ways?
- like some labor unions, they force people to join
- they are small enough so that every member’s voice matters and free rider problems are lessened
- they encourage a larger, engaged membership by offering incentives for people to join and participate
Selective incentives
benefits that can motivate participation in a group effort because they’re only available to those who participate
ex. member services offered by interest groups
3 categories of selective incentives
benefits from participation, coercion, and material goods
Solidary benefits
satisfaction from working with like-minded people, even if the group’s efforts don’t achieve the desired impact
Purposive benefits
satisfaction from working toward a desired policy goal, even if the goal is not achieved
What happens when solidary or purposive benefits aren’t enough to solve the free rider problem?
groups may require participation through coercion
ex. union members must pay dues
Coercion
a method of eliminating free riding by group members by requiring participation, as in many labor unions
Material benefits
benefits given only to members of an interest group
ex. T-shirt or coffee mug
2 types of lobbying tactics
- inside strategies
-actions taken inside government (whether federal, state, or local) - outside strategies (or “indirect strategies”)
-actions taken outside government
Types of inside strategies
-direct lobbying
-drafting legislation and regulations
-providing research
-hearings (interest group staff testify before congressional committees)
-litigation (taking the government to court)
-interest groups working together in their lobbying efforts
Direct lobbying
attempts by interest group staff to influence policy by speaking with government officials
very common; aimed at elected officials and bureaucrats who support the group’s goals, not oppose them
Fence-sitters
officials who neither support nor oppose a specific interest group. contacted by group with goal of converting them into supporters
What is one reason that lobbyists are successful at getting their “model legislation” passed?
they give legislation proposals to legislators who already support their cause and who have significant within in Congress (and state legislatures)
Why do interest groups prepare research reports?
to sway public opinion, help persuade elected officials or bureaucrats, or directly influence the industry that is the subject of the report. also helps the group claim expertise
Why do interest groups often testify before congressional committees?
partially to inform Congress members about issues that matter to the interest group
Interest groups work together due to the power of large numbers. What’s one problem with working together?
groups may agree on general goals but disagree on specifics, thereby requiring negotiation (which may not always be achieved)
Types of outside strategies
-grassroots lobbying
-Astroturf lobbying
-mobilizing public opinion (contacting members and potential supporters)
-electioneering
-cultivating media contacts (like talking to journalists for favorable media coverage)
-bypassing government: initiative or referendum
Grassroots lobbying
a lobbying strategy that relies on participation by interest group members, such as a protest or a letter-writing campaign
Why are grassroots strategies useful?
elected officials are reluctant to act against a large group of citizens who care enough about an issue to express their position
What is needed for grassroots lobbying to be effective?
-a large number of members
-efforts must come from a Congress member’s own constituents
-perceptions of how much a group has done to motivate participation
Astroturf lobbying
any lobbying method initiated by an interest group that is designed to look like the spontaneous, independent participation of many individuals
Is Astroturf lobbying effective?
representative may discount the effort if it is found to be Astroturf lobbying. still, they’re sometimes reluctant to completely dismiss it since so many people participated (even with facilitation by an interest group)
How have Astroturf efforts recently evolved into a practice that is truly fake grassroots?
organizations that claim to represent grassroots entities but in reality advocate for big industry
ex. Connected Commerce Council (3C)
Electioneering
trying to influence people to vote for a particular candidate or party
How do interest groups carry out electioneering?
-making contributions to candidates
-mobilizing people (including their own staff) to help in a campaign
-endorsing candidates
-funding campaign ads
-mobilizing a candidate’s or party’s supporters
Political action committee (PAC)
an interest group or a division of an interest group that can raise money to contribute to campaigns or to spend on ads in support of candidates. the amount a PAC can receive from each of its donors and the amount it can spend on federal electioneering are strictly limited
527 organization
a tax-exempt group formed primarily to influence elections through voter mobilization efforts and issue ads that do not directly endorse or oppose a candidate. unlike PACs, 527s are not subject to contribution limits and spending caps
Why do groups that actively want to engage in lobbying or electioneering operate as a PAC or 527 organization instead of a 501(c)(3)?
although donations to those groups are not tax deductible like they are for 501(c)(3) orgs, they have fewer restrictions on the size of contributions they can make and how their money is spent
ex. 527 orgs have no contribution or spending limits
What two new options for electioneering by interest groups emerged in recent elections?
super PACs and 501(c)(4) organizations
Super PAC
consequence of Citizens United Supreme Court decision
“Super” label reflects the fact that these groups take in and spend much more money than the typical PAC
can accept unlimited contributions and spend an unlimited amount supporting or opposing federal election candidates, but they cannot directly donate to federal candidates or parties
501(c)(4) organization
can engage in limited political activity, but politics cannot comprise the group’s primary activity
Advantages and disadvantages of 501(c)(3) organizations
advantages: contributions tax deductible
disadvantages: cannot advocate for or against political candidates; lobbying must not constitute more than 20% of group’s total expenditures (but voter education and mobilization are permitted)
Advantages and disadvantages of 527 organizations
advantages: can spend unlimited amounts on issue advocacy and voter mobilization
disadvantages: cannot make contributions to candidates or coordinate efforts with candidates or parties
Advantages and disadvantages of 501(c)(4) organizations
advantages: can spend unlimited amounts on electioneering; does not have to disclose contributors
disadvantages: at least half of its activities must be nonpolitical; cannot coordinate efforts with candidates or parties
Advantages and disadvantages of PACs
advantages: can contribute directly to candidates and parties
disadvantages: strict limits on direct contributions
Advantages and disadvantages of Super PACs
advantages: can spend unlimited amounts on electioneering; can support or oppose specific candidates
disadvantages: cannot make contributions to candidates or coordinate efforts with candidates or parties
Can spending totals by interest groups be deceptive?
YES. while the amount spent may be high, it must be taken into context, like how many candidates the money went to, if spending even went to federal candidates (could be for issue ads), or if most of it was funded by a single wealthy donor
Referendum
a direct vote by citizens on a policy change proposed by a legislature or another government body. referenda are common in state and local elections, but there is no mechanism for a national-level referendum
Initiative
citizens put questions on the ballot, typically after gathering signatures of registered voters on a petition, and public votes on it in a general election. only occur in states or municipalities that have appropriate procedures in place
Are initiatives allowed in all states?
NO; only some states allow them, and some permit this kind of vote only on a narrow range of issues
What is one principal concern about the initiative process?
it favors well-funded groups that can better advertise and mobilize their supporters to vote on Election Day. still, heavy spending often isn’t enough
How will a group decide whether to use inside or outside strategies?
partly on its resources and partly on what approach it believes will be most effective in promoting its particular issues
What does “the solution to lobbying is more lobbying” mean?
a group’s chances of getting what it wants depend on whether there is organized opposition to their demand
What are 4 reasons why it is so hard to measure interest group influence?
- interest groups may not always get what they want from Congress, particularly when their efforts are opposed by citizen groups or government officials
- some complaints about the power of interest groups come from the losing side in the political process
- many interest groups claim responsibility for policies and election outcomes regardless of whether their lobbying made the difference
- arguments about the impact of interest groups on election outcomes ignore the fact that interest groups are almost always active on both sides of an election campaign
What are 3 factors that shape interest group influence?
- the group’s goal (does it want to change a policy or to prevent change?)
- salience (how many Americans care about what a group is trying to do?)
- conflict (to what extent do other groups or the public oppose the policy change?)
Why do groups generally have an easier time preventing a change than working to implement one?
enacting a new policy requires the approval of both houses of Congress, the president’s signature (or a veto override), and implementation from the appropriate bureaucratic agency. each step gives opportunity to lobby officials to do nothing (negative lobbying)
Why are interest groups more likely to succeed when their request has low salience or attracts little public attention?
when the average voter doesn’t know or care about a group’s request, legislators and bureaucrats don’t have to worry about the political consequences of giving the group what it wants
How common are low-salience issues?
surprisingly common. 5% of issues attracted more than 50% of lobbying activity and 50% of issues attracted less than 3%
Sometimes lobbying efforts attract no publicity. Can this be a good thing for the lobbying group?
YES; when few people know or care about a policy change, interest groups are able to dominate the policy-making process
Sometimes the public would care about an issue, but people don’t find out about the issue until it is too late. Then when opponents of the move try to undo it, they fail. What principle does this illustrate?
preventing change is easier than change
Interest group influence is much less apparent on conflictual issues—those for which public opinion is split and groups are typically active on both sides of the issue. How come?
stalemate or incremental policy change is the likely outcome.
if policy change occurs at all, it is likely due to a complex process of bargaining and compromise, so it’s hard to say if a group won or lost
Many worry that well-funded interest groups will use their financial resources to dominate the policy-making process, even if public opinion is against them, but this holds only under certain conditions. What is the more common situation?
more often, the conditions that are ripe for well-funded interest groups to become involved in a policy debate typically ensure that there will be well-funded groups on all sides of a question
ex. gun control debate
under these conditions, no group is likely to get everything it wants and no group’s lobbying efforts are likely to be decisive. some groups may not get anything
What do most cases of interest group influence look like?
a group asks for something, there is relatively little opposition, and Congress or the bureaucracy responds with appropriate policy changes
What are the best conditions for lobbying? The worst?
good: your group is the only one lobbying and there is little public attention
bad: the issue is highly salient and you have opposition (your prospects aren’t good, regardless of the size of your bankroll)
