Chapter 1- The Major Issues

Question 1

Philosophical question as to why and how brain activity becomes conscious

Answer 1

Hard problem

Question 2

Question about the relationship between mental experience and brain activity

Answer 2

Mind-brain problem or mind-body problem

Question 3

The study of the physiological, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms of behaviour and experience

Answer 3

Biological psychology

Question 4

What are the four kinds of biological explanations of behavior?

Answer 4

Physiological, ontogenetic, evolutionary, and functional

Question 5

Understanding in terms of the activity of the brain and other organs

Answer 5

Physiological explanation

Example: the chemical reactions that enable hormones to influence brain activity and the routes by which brain activity controls muscle contractions.
The description of how doves and pigeons can drink with their heads down would focus on their unusual pattern of nerves and throat muscles

Question 6

Understanding in terms of how a structure or behaviour develops

Answer 6

Ontogenetic explanation

Example: the ability to inhibit impulses develops gradually from infancy through the teenage years, reflecting gradual maturation of the frontal parts of the brain.

Question 7

Understanding in terms of the evolutionary history of a structure or behaviour

Answer 7

Evolutionary explanation

Example: monkeys use tools occasionally, and humans evolved elaborations on those abilities that enable us to use tools even better.
Doves and pigeons can drink with their heads down. All doves and pigeons share this behavioural capacity because they inherited their genes from a common ancestor

Question 8

Understanding why a structure or behaviour evolved as it did

Answer 8

Functional explanation

Example: the tendency for fear to erect the hairs on cats is that it makes the animal look larger and more intimidating.
Many species have an appearance that matches their background because the camouflaged appearance makes the animal inconspicuous to predators

Question 9

Describe the two major positions concerning the relationship between the brain and conscious experience

Answer 9

Some scholars have suggested that we do away with the concept of consciousness or mind altogether. This proposal seems to avoid the question, not answer it

Others propose that we regard consciousness as a fundamental property of matter – one that cannot be reduced to something else. For example mass is a fundamental property, we can’t explain why matter has mass; it just does. We also can’t explain why protons and electrons have charge. However, this proposal is unsatisfying, and consciousness isn’t like other fundamental properties – consciousness only occurs in certain parts of certain kind of nervous systems and just some of the time. Theorists have not given up on finding an explanation of consciousness

Question 10

Studies the anatomy, biochemistry, or physiology of the nervous system. Ordinarily requires a PhD and are employed by universities, hospitals, pharmaceutical firms, and research institutes.

Answer 10

Neuroscientist

Question 11

Requires PhD or PsyD. Employed by hospital, clinic, private practice, or college. Helps people with emotional problems

Answer 11

Clinical psychologist

Question 12

Requires PhD or PsyD. Employed by hospital, clinic, private practice, or college. Helps people make educational, vocational, and other decisions

Answer 12

Counselling psychologist

Question 13

Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another

Answer 13

Genes

Question 14

Strands of genes

Answer 14

Chromosomes

Question 15

Double-stranded molecule that is part of the chromosomes

Answer 15

Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA

Question 16

A single-strand chemical

Answer 16

Ribonucleic acid RNA

Question 17

Biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body

Answer 17

Enzymes

Question 18

Having two identical genes for a given characteristic

Answer 18

Homozygous

Question 19

Having to unlike genes for a given trait

Answer 19

Heterozygous

Question 20

Gene that shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition

Answer 20

Dominant gene

Question 21

A gene that shows effects only in the homozygous condition

Answer 21

Recessive gene

Question 22

Describe the concept of Mendelian genetics

Answer 22

Before the work of Gregor Mendel, a late 19th century Monk, scientists thought that inheritance was a blending process in which the properties of the sperm in the egg simply mixed like two colours of paint.
Mandel demonstrated that inheritance occurs through genes, units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another. As a rule, genes come in pairs because they are aligned along chromosomes, strands of genes, that also come in pairs.

Question 23

Describe the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins

Answer 23

A strand of DNA serves as a template or model for the synthesis of RNA molecules. One type of RNA molecule – messenger RNA – serves as a template for the synthesis of protein molecules. Some proteins form part of the structure of the body. Others serve as enzymes, biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body.

DNA contains four bases – adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The order of those bases determines the order of corresponding bases along an RNA molecule – adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. The order of bases along an RNA molecule in turn determines the order of amino acids that compose a protein

Question 24

Gene on either the X or the Y chromosome

Answer 24

Sex-linked gene

In mammals, a female has two X chromosomes, whereas a male has an X and a Y.
The Y chromosome is small, having genes for only 27 proteins in humans. The X chromosome has genes for about 1500 proteins.
The recessive gene for red-green colour vision deficiency is an example of a human sex-linked gene.

Question 25

All chromosomes other than X and Y

Answer 25

Autosomal genes

Question 26

Gene that exerts it’s effects primarily in one sex because of activation by androgens or estrogens, although members of both sexes may have the gene

Answer 26

Sex-limited genes

Example: genes that control the amount of chest hair in men, breast size in women, amount of crowing in roosters, and rate of egg production in hens

Question 27

A heritable change in a DNA molecule

Answer 27

Mutation

Another kind of mutation is a duplication or deletion. During the process of reproduction, part of a chromosome that should appear once might instead appear twice or not at all. When this process happens to just a tiny portion of a chromosome, we call it a microduplication or microdeletion.

Question 28

A field that deals with changes in gene expression without modification of the DNA sequence

Answer 28

Epigenetics

Question 29

Twins derived from one egg

Answer 29

Monozygotic twins

Question 30

Fraternal, non-identical twins derived from two eggs

Answer 30

Dizygotic twins

Question 31

Estimate of the degree to which variation in a characteristic depends on genetic variations in a given population

Answer 31

Heritability

Question 32

A genetic inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine

Answer 32

Phenylketonuria PKU

Question 33

How does an epigenetic change differ from a mutation?

Answer 33

A mutation is a permanent change in part of a chromosome. An epigenetic change is an increase or decrease in the activity of a gene or group of genes. In some cases an epigenetic change lasts months or years, but it would not be passed on generation after generation

Question 34

What are the main types of evidence to estimate the heritability of some behavior? Three

Answer 34

One type of evidence is greater similarity between monozygotic twins then dizygotic twins.

Resemblance between adopted children and their biological parents.

A demonstration that a particular gene is more common than average among people who show a particular behaviour.

Question 35

Give reasons why heritability can be overestimated?

Answer 35

Estimates of heritability are never absolute – they apply to a particular population at a particular time.

People are also influenced by their environment- genes affect environmental interactions and the environment affects the expression of genes

Question 36

A change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population

Answer 36

Evolution

Question 37

A process of selecting plants/animals for desired traits

Answer 37

Artificial selection

Question 38

Theory of evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics

Answer 38

Lamarckian evolution

According to this idea, if you exercise your arm muscles, your children will be born with bigger our muscles, and if you fail to use your little toes, your children’s little toes will be smaller than yours.

Question 39

The spreading of genes; number of copies of one’s genes that endure in later generations

Answer 39

Fitness

Question 40

Field that deals with how behaviours evolved

Answer 40

Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology leads to research that for helps us understand a behavior. The search for a functional explanation directs researchers to explore species different habitats and ways of life until we understand why they behave differently. However, this approach is criticized when it’s practitioners propose explanations without testing them.

Question 41

An action that benefits someone other than the actor

Answer 41

Altruistic behaviour

Question 42

Selection for a gene that benefits the individual’s relatives

Answer 42

Kin selection

Question 43

Helping others who may be helpful in return

Answer 43

Reciprocal altruism

Question 44

What are two plausible ways for possible altruistic genes to spread in a population?

Answer 44

Altruistic genes could spread because they facilitate care for one’s kin (kin selection) or because they facilitate exchange of favours with others (reciprocal altruism). Group selection may also work under some circumstances, especially if the cooperative group has some way to punish or expel an uncooperative individual

Question 45

What are four reasons for animal research?

Answer 45

1. The underlying mechanisms of behaviour are similar across species and sometimes easier to study in a non-human species
   - The brains and behaviour of nonhuman vertebrates resemble those of humans in their chemistry and anatomy, and invertebrate nerves follow the same basic principles as our own
2. We are interested in animals for their own sake – humans are naturally curious
3. What we learn about animals sheds light on human evolution
4. Legal or ethical restrictions prevent certain kinds of research on humans

Question 46

Discuss the two positions regarding animal research

Answer 46

Minimalists: tolerate certain kinds of animal research but wish to prohibit others depending on the probable value of the research, the amount of distress to the animal, and the type of animal. They favour firm regulations on research

Abolitionists: see no room for compromise. Maintain that all animals have the same rights as humans. Regard killing an animal as murder, whether the intention is to eat it, use it for, or gain scientific knowledge. Because animals cannot give informed consent to research, abolitionists insist it is wrong to use them in anyway, regardless of the circumstances.

Question 47

Describe the regulatory committees that oversee animal research

Answer 47

The legal standard emphasizes the 3Rs: reduction of animal numbers or using fewer animals, replacement – using computer models or other substitutes for animals when possible, and refinement – modifying the procedures to reduce pain and discomfort

In the US, every college or other institution that receives government research funds is required to have an institutional animal care and use committee composed of veterinarians, community representatives, and scientists, that evaluates proposed experiments, decides whether they are acceptable, and specifies procedures to minimize pain and discomfort

All research laboratories must abide by national laws requiring standards of cleanliness and animal care.

scientific journals accept publications only after researchers state that they followed all the laws and regulations.

Question 48

How does the minimalist position differ from the abolitionist position?

Answer 48

A minimalist wishes to limit animal research to studies with little discomfort and much potential value. An abolitionist wishes to eliminate all animal research regardless of how the animals are treated or how much value the research might produce