Chapter 1- The Major Issues Flashcards
Philosophical question as to why and how brain activity becomes conscious
Hard problem
Question about the relationship between mental experience and brain activity
Mind-brain problem or mind-body problem
The study of the physiological, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms of behaviour and experience
Biological psychology
What are the four kinds of biological explanations of behavior?
Physiological, ontogenetic, evolutionary, and functional
Understanding in terms of the activity of the brain and other organs
Physiological explanation
Example: the chemical reactions that enable hormones to influence brain activity and the routes by which brain activity controls muscle contractions.
The description of how doves and pigeons can drink with their heads down would focus on their unusual pattern of nerves and throat muscles
Understanding in terms of how a structure or behaviour develops
Ontogenetic explanation
Example: the ability to inhibit impulses develops gradually from infancy through the teenage years, reflecting gradual maturation of the frontal parts of the brain.
Understanding in terms of the evolutionary history of a structure or behaviour
Evolutionary explanation
Example: monkeys use tools occasionally, and humans evolved elaborations on those abilities that enable us to use tools even better.
Doves and pigeons can drink with their heads down. All doves and pigeons share this behavioural capacity because they inherited their genes from a common ancestor
Understanding why a structure or behaviour evolved as it did
Functional explanation
Example: the tendency for fear to erect the hairs on cats is that it makes the animal look larger and more intimidating.
Many species have an appearance that matches their background because the camouflaged appearance makes the animal inconspicuous to predators
Describe the two major positions concerning the relationship between the brain and conscious experience
Some scholars have suggested that we do away with the concept of consciousness or mind altogether. This proposal seems to avoid the question, not answer it
Others propose that we regard consciousness as a fundamental property of matter – one that cannot be reduced to something else. For example mass is a fundamental property, we can’t explain why matter has mass; it just does. We also can’t explain why protons and electrons have charge. However, this proposal is unsatisfying, and consciousness isn’t like other fundamental properties – consciousness only occurs in certain parts of certain kind of nervous systems and just some of the time. Theorists have not given up on finding an explanation of consciousness
Studies the anatomy, biochemistry, or physiology of the nervous system. Ordinarily requires a PhD and are employed by universities, hospitals, pharmaceutical firms, and research institutes.
Neuroscientist
Requires PhD or PsyD. Employed by hospital, clinic, private practice, or college. Helps people with emotional problems
Clinical psychologist
Requires PhD or PsyD. Employed by hospital, clinic, private practice, or college. Helps people make educational, vocational, and other decisions
Counselling psychologist
Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another
Genes
Strands of genes
Chromosomes
Double-stranded molecule that is part of the chromosomes
Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA
A single-strand chemical
Ribonucleic acid RNA
Biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body
Enzymes
Having two identical genes for a given characteristic
Homozygous
Having to unlike genes for a given trait
Heterozygous
Gene that shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition
Dominant gene
A gene that shows effects only in the homozygous condition
Recessive gene
Describe the concept of Mendelian genetics
Before the work of Gregor Mendel, a late 19th century Monk, scientists thought that inheritance was a blending process in which the properties of the sperm in the egg simply mixed like two colours of paint.
Mandel demonstrated that inheritance occurs through genes, units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another. As a rule, genes come in pairs because they are aligned along chromosomes, strands of genes, that also come in pairs.
Describe the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins
A strand of DNA serves as a template or model for the synthesis of RNA molecules. One type of RNA molecule – messenger RNA – serves as a template for the synthesis of protein molecules. Some proteins form part of the structure of the body. Others serve as enzymes, biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body.
DNA contains four bases – adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The order of those bases determines the order of corresponding bases along an RNA molecule – adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. The order of bases along an RNA molecule in turn determines the order of amino acids that compose a protein
Gene on either the X or the Y chromosome
Sex-linked gene
In mammals, a female has two X chromosomes, whereas a male has an X and a Y.
The Y chromosome is small, having genes for only 27 proteins in humans. The X chromosome has genes for about 1500 proteins.
The recessive gene for red-green colour vision deficiency is an example of a human sex-linked gene.
All chromosomes other than X and Y
Autosomal genes
Gene that exerts it’s effects primarily in one sex because of activation by androgens or estrogens, although members of both sexes may have the gene
Sex-limited genes
Example: genes that control the amount of chest hair in men, breast size in women, amount of crowing in roosters, and rate of egg production in hens
A heritable change in a DNA molecule
Mutation
Another kind of mutation is a duplication or deletion. During the process of reproduction, part of a chromosome that should appear once might instead appear twice or not at all. When this process happens to just a tiny portion of a chromosome, we call it a microduplication or microdeletion.
A field that deals with changes in gene expression without modification of the DNA sequence
Epigenetics
Twins derived from one egg
Monozygotic twins
Fraternal, non-identical twins derived from two eggs
Dizygotic twins
Estimate of the degree to which variation in a characteristic depends on genetic variations in a given population
Heritability
A genetic inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine
Phenylketonuria PKU
How does an epigenetic change differ from a mutation?
A mutation is a permanent change in part of a chromosome. An epigenetic change is an increase or decrease in the activity of a gene or group of genes. In some cases an epigenetic change lasts months or years, but it would not be passed on generation after generation
What are the main types of evidence to estimate the heritability of some behavior? Three
One type of evidence is greater similarity between monozygotic twins then dizygotic twins.
Resemblance between adopted children and their biological parents.
A demonstration that a particular gene is more common than average among people who show a particular behaviour.
Give reasons why heritability can be overestimated?
Estimates of heritability are never absolute – they apply to a particular population at a particular time.
People are also influenced by their environment- genes affect environmental interactions and the environment affects the expression of genes
A change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population
Evolution
A process of selecting plants/animals for desired traits
Artificial selection
Theory of evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics
Lamarckian evolution
According to this idea, if you exercise your arm muscles, your children will be born with bigger our muscles, and if you fail to use your little toes, your children’s little toes will be smaller than yours.
The spreading of genes; number of copies of one’s genes that endure in later generations
Fitness
Field that deals with how behaviours evolved
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology leads to research that for helps us understand a behavior. The search for a functional explanation directs researchers to explore species different habitats and ways of life until we understand why they behave differently. However, this approach is criticized when it’s practitioners propose explanations without testing them.
An action that benefits someone other than the actor
Altruistic behaviour
Selection for a gene that benefits the individual’s relatives
Kin selection
Helping others who may be helpful in return
Reciprocal altruism
What are two plausible ways for possible altruistic genes to spread in a population?
Altruistic genes could spread because they facilitate care for one’s kin (kin selection) or because they facilitate exchange of favours with others (reciprocal altruism). Group selection may also work under some circumstances, especially if the cooperative group has some way to punish or expel an uncooperative individual
What are four reasons for animal research?
- The underlying mechanisms of behaviour are similar across species and sometimes easier to study in a non-human species
- The brains and behaviour of nonhuman vertebrates resemble those of humans in their chemistry and anatomy, and invertebrate nerves follow the same basic principles as our own - We are interested in animals for their own sake – humans are naturally curious
- What we learn about animals sheds light on human evolution
- Legal or ethical restrictions prevent certain kinds of research on humans
Discuss the two positions regarding animal research
Minimalists: tolerate certain kinds of animal research but wish to prohibit others depending on the probable value of the research, the amount of distress to the animal, and the type of animal. They favour firm regulations on research
Abolitionists: see no room for compromise. Maintain that all animals have the same rights as humans. Regard killing an animal as murder, whether the intention is to eat it, use it for, or gain scientific knowledge. Because animals cannot give informed consent to research, abolitionists insist it is wrong to use them in anyway, regardless of the circumstances.
Describe the regulatory committees that oversee animal research
The legal standard emphasizes the 3Rs: reduction of animal numbers or using fewer animals, replacement – using computer models or other substitutes for animals when possible, and refinement – modifying the procedures to reduce pain and discomfort
In the US, every college or other institution that receives government research funds is required to have an institutional animal care and use committee composed of veterinarians, community representatives, and scientists, that evaluates proposed experiments, decides whether they are acceptable, and specifies procedures to minimize pain and discomfort
All research laboratories must abide by national laws requiring standards of cleanliness and animal care.
scientific journals accept publications only after researchers state that they followed all the laws and regulations.
How does the minimalist position differ from the abolitionist position?
A minimalist wishes to limit animal research to studies with little discomfort and much potential value. An abolitionist wishes to eliminate all animal research regardless of how the animals are treated or how much value the research might produce
