Chapter 1: SOCIOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE

Question 1

Sociology- provides unique insight into social life, which a non-sociologist may overlook

Answer 1

Although sociology is primarily an academic discipline, it deals with issues that are of practical
importance in the real world. It helps us to see everyday life through the eyes of a scientist. Eventhough people believe that they are independent and unique, they have much in common with others.

Question 2

Human behaviour is influenced by our social environment.

Answer 2

Humans are social beings who are influenced by the groups to which they belong.
Thus, human behaviour, thought and ideas are influenced unconsciously by close and continuous contact with the social environment

Question 3

Giddens’ theory of structuration.

Answer 3

British sociologist Anthony Giddens, who developed the theory, argues that human behavior cannot be separated from the structures or institutions of the world. While human behavior is an individual action and should be seen as a choice, the influence of social structures cannot be ignored.

Question 4

Sociological experiences

Answer 4

The subject matter of sociology

such as classism, racism and sexism in the family, school and church

Question 5

Giddens’s theory of structuration exemplifies

Answer 5

* sociological experiences* because he looks
at the interrelationship between structure and agency

Question 6

(A. Giddens 1986) definition of sociology

Answer 6

Sociology: the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a dazzling and
compelling enterprise having as its subject matter our own behaviour as social beings

In a similar vein, Comte suggests that sociology is the queen of the social
sciences

Question 7

Collective life

Answer 7

Collective life refers to groups or institutionalized practices such as family and school relationships and experiences

Question 8

(A. Thio 1994) defintion of sociology

Answer 8

**‘The scientific study of human society and interactions.’ **

This definition of sociology
emphasizes the use of systematic procedures in the study of human behaviour. In this way,
sociological knowledge is separated from common-sense knowledge

Question 9

Sociology as the scientific analysis of the origin and development of human societies.

Answer 9

It therefore uses a** systematic approach to studying society, based on solid evidence, rather than
intuition or speculation.** As sociologists observe social phenomena and see recurrent patterns of
behaviour, they are able to foresee or predict behaviour based on past evidence. Sociologists also
look at the way a society evolves and changes with time, how it creates and maintains its culture
and how groups and institutions influence human social behaviour.

Question 10

The Sociological Imagination

1959 by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills

Answer 10

The concept describes **a person’s ability to see the impact of historical and social forces on his/her life, thereby illustrating the relationship between an individual and the wider society. **
It places great import on the ability to link past events to contemporary occurrences and the external forces (such as
the state, school or church) that help to shape what takes place in that micro-environment.

Question 11

The Sociological Imagination is key to understanding sociology as..

Answer 11

It allows sociologists to see beyond their own personal troubles and to consider wider social issues.
The sociologist will view his/her own society as an objective and dispassionate outsider, free from biases, prejudices, cultural values and attitudes

Question 12

Origins of Sociology

Answer 12

Auguste Comte (1798–1857), regarded as the founding father of the discipline, developed the term ‘social physics’. He then coined the term ‘Sociology’
According to Giddens (1986),
sociology developed in response to the changes occurring in Europe in the nineteenth century.
These societies were experiencing drastic changes such as urbanization and democratization as a result of the French and Industrial Revolutions. Furthermore, around this time, the influence of the church was declining (secularization) and scholars were turning to science to provide answers to their concerns. For instance the Enlightment Period aka The Age of Reason and the Scientific Revolution
Traditional structures, norms, values and institutions were
being broken down and replaced by new ones. Europe was in a state of flux and uncertainty.
It was thus the task of the sociologist to provide plausible explanations for these occurrences.
The change from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ became a central theme in the work of many nineteenth century thinkers and scholars, due to the social instability and turmoil believed to result
from such change.
. Early sociologists (Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer [1820–1903]) were
the pioneers **in applying the principles of the natural sciences to the study of society. **

Question 13

Herbert Spencer

Answer 13

**Spencer believed that society was an organism, that is, it contained parts (institutions) that performed
specific functions for its well-being. **For instance, the family helps to maintain society by carrying out the roles of primary socialization and the stabilization of adult personalities.

Herbert Spencer was commonly known for social Darwinism. Social Darwinism held that certain human beings would become more powerful than others because of their race or group. The theory explained that people were subject to rules similar to those of natural selection introduced by Charles Darwin. Spencer originated the expression “survival of the fittest”

Question 14

The Three Major Founding Fathers of Sociology

Concise Points on Émile Durkheim’s Contributions

Answer 14

1. Concern: Durkheim studied the changes in Europe and the resulting societal instability.
2. Functionalist View: Society is a balanced system of interrelated and interdependent parts (organic analogy).
3. Social Order: Created by moral rules, norms, beliefs, and values that foster a shared sense of belonging, harmony, and equilibrium.
4. Collective Conscience: Shared norms, values, and beliefs maintain social solidarity (integration among members of society) and ensure societal survival.
5. Social Facts: Unwritten rules created by society that influence and control people’s thoughts and actions.
6. Positivism: Advocated the use of natural science methods to study humans and social facts (norms, values, and structures external to the individual).
7. Study of Suicide:
   
   • First sociologist to conduct a detailed scientific study on suicide.
   • Outlined methods for studying social sciences in The Rules of Sociological Method (1895).
   • Applied these methods to Le Suicide (1897) to analyze individual and social phenomena (suicide and suicide rate).
8. Sociology School: Founded the first school of sociology in France in 1887.

Question 15

Concise Points on Karl Marx’s Contributions

Answer 15

1. Fields of Expertise: Marx is regarded as a philosopher, political scientist, and economist.
2. Sociological Perspective: Marx viewed society as an arena of struggle, conflict, and competing interests, contrasting with the functionalist perspective of harmony and integration.
3. Capitalism: Creates wealth and power disparities, leading to privilege and dominance for some groups over others.
4. Class Conflict:
   
   • Two main classes: the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (capitalists).
   • Workers become alienated (unhappy) as the bourgeoisie appropriates the products of their labor.
   • Dominant groups control societal resources and maintain the status quo through institutions like schools and churches.
5. False Consciousness: Proletariat’s inability to recognize their oppression sustains the status quo temporarily.
6. Class-Consciousness:
   
   • Awareness that arises when the proletariat transforms from a “class in itself” to a “class for itself.”
   • Leads to unity, the downfall of capitalism, and societal change.
7. Conflict and Change:
   
   • Tensions and hostilities arise from conflicting goals and values, eventually altering the social order.
   • Societies evolve linearly: slavery → feudalism → capitalism → communism (classless society).
8. Conflict Perspective: Marx is considered the founding father of the conflict theory in sociology.
9. Communism: Envisioned as the ultimate societal structure, achieved after overthrowing capitalism.

Question 16

Concise Points on Max Weber’s Contributions

Answer 16

1. Relevance: Weber’s writings were significant for economists, sociologists, and historians.
2. Sociological Approach: Introduced a micro-perspective, focusing on smaller groups to uncover the meanings behind human social action. Unlike the other two founding fathers who viewed society from a
   macro-perspective. He felt that social behaviour could not be adequately understood by looking at the large
   structures studied by the functionalist theorists.
3. Social Action:
   
   • Defined as any action with meaning, considering the presence of others, and oriented in its course.
4. Key Work: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904):
   
   • Disputed Marx’s revolutionary theory of societal transformation.
   • Argued that capitalism arose from the spread of ascetic Protestantism, especially Calvinism, which encouraged frugality and thrift.
5. Theoretical Legacy:
   
   • Social action theory laid the foundation for the interactionist perspective.
   • Influenced later scholars like George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, Blumer, and Cooley.

Question 17

defintion: discipline

Answer 17

a branch of knowledge, typically one studied in higher education

Question 18

Order of sociologists

Answer 18

1. Auguste Comte
2. Karl Marx
3. Emile Durkheim
4. Max Weber
5. Talcott Parsons
6. Robert Merton

Question 19

Concise Points on Auguste Comte’s Contributions

Answer 19

1. Background: Comte was a French mathematician and philosopher.
2. Positivism:
   
   • A philosophy based on experience and empirical knowledge of natural phenomena.
   • Advocated applying natural science principles and methods to study society, creating a “positive science of society.”
3. Laws of Human Behavior:
   
   • Suggested that laws govern human behavior, making it measurable and objective.
   • Believed behavior is controlled by the social environment, similar to how organisms are controlled by the natural environment.
   • Argued human behavior could be predicted and measured like natural phenomena.
4. Legacy:
   
   • Provided the foundation for modern sociology.
   • Influenced thinkers like Durkheim, who adapted and developed many of Comte’s doctrines.

Question 20

Concise Points on Talcott Parsons’ Contributions

Answer 20

1. Influence:
   
   • Expanded on Durkheim’s theory and was influenced by Weber’s social action theory, particularly on religion’s role in society.
   • Religion provides meaning during disasters like drought or famine.
2. Social Action: Inspired by Weber’s idea that social action conveys specific meanings that influence other actions.
3. View of Society:
   
   • Like Durkheim, Parsons saw society as a system of interrelated parts.
   • Identified four functional prerequisites (preconditions for societal survival):
     
     • Adaptation (economy)
     • Goal attainment (government)
     • Integration (schools)
     • Pattern maintenance/latency (families)
4. Social Change:
   
   • Believed change is gradual and evolutionary, transforming societies from simple traditional forms to complex modern ones.
   • Societies adapt to meet changing needs.
5. Pattern Variables: Described shifts in values as societies evolve from traditional to modern using five pairs of pattern variables.
6. Legacy: Recognized as one of the most influential sociologists globally.

Question 21

Parsons’ Pattern Variables

Pattern Variables A and B are the main values of traditional (pre-industrial) and modern societies respectively

Answer 21

• Ascription
• Diffuseness
• Particularism
• Affectivity
• Collective-orientation
• Achievement
• Specificity
• Universalism
• Affective-neutrality
• Self-orientation

Question 22

Concise Points on Robert Merton’s Contributions

Answer 22

1. Refinement of Functionalism:
   
   • Challenged the assumption that all persistent phenomena are functional for society.
   • Claimed institutions can be functional, non-functional, or dysfunctional depending on context.
2. Functions:
   
   • Introduced the concepts of:
     
     • Manifest functions: Obvious and intended (e.g., schools bringing people together).
     • Latent functions: Hidden and unintended, which can be positive or negative (e.g., schools fostering lifelong friendships or marriages).
3. Strain Theory:
   
   • Highlighted the mismatch between cultural goals (achievement) and structural means (institutional resources).
   • Suggested individuals experience strain and may seek alternative ways to achieve success.
   • Strain theory which emphasizes the
     incongruence between what the culture calls for and what the structure allows
4. Legacy: Provided a nuanced understanding of social functions and individual responses to societal pressures.

Question 23

Concise Points on Conflict Theory

Answer 23

1. Structural Perspective:
   
   • Like functionalism, conflict theory is a macro-sociological perspective but focuses on conflict rather than harmony in society.
2. Core Concept:
   
   • Society is seen as a state of conflict between opposing groups, arising from injustice, inequality, and exploitation.
3. Marx’s Contributions:
   
   • Clashes of interests: Historical conflicts between economic/social classes.
   • Proletariat and Bourgeoisie:
     
     • Proletariat: The working class.
     • Bourgeoisie: The capitalists who own the means of production.
   • Classless Society: Believed proletariat would eventually revolt, overthrow the bourgeoisie, and establish a communist society, ending oppression.
4. Conflict as Positive:
   
   • Seen as desirable, leading to social change and the elimination of exploitation.
5. Marx’s Writings:
   
   • Key works: The Communist Manifesto (1848), The German Ideology (posthumous), and Capital (1867).
6. Neo-Marxism:
   
   • Modern theorists, such as Ralf Dahrendorf, extended Marx’s ideas to fit contemporary society.
   • Dahrendorf argued conflict is no longer between bourgeoisie and proletariat but between managers and workers due to managerial authority.
7. Marx’s Legacy:
   
   • Influential in developing the conflict perspective and inspiring ongoing critiques and adaptations of his theories.

Question 24

The Interactionist Perspective

Answer 24

• Focus:
  
  • Examines the individual and interaction processes in small groups.
• Inspiration:
  
  • Inspired by Max Weber’s social action theory.
• Weber’s Criticism of Marx:
  
  • Marx’s thinking was too economically deterministic (associated all human behavior with economic factors).
  • Marx: Society’s institutions are controlled by the economic base.
  • Weber: Added social, political, and cultural elements to his theories.
• Weber’s Example:
  
  • Upper class distinguished by values, status, and prestige.
  • Wealthy family upbringing differs from the newly rich, whose taste may seem vulgar.
• Interpretive Sociology:
  
  • Broad and subdivided into many perspectives.
  • Focuses on individuals (micro-sociology).
• Interpretive Theorists:
  
  • View people as living in a world of meaningful objects.
  • Analyze social action at the individual level, unlike macro-level Functionalism and Marxism.
• Significance:
  
  • Functionalism, Marxism, and Interpretive Sociology foundational to sociology.
  • Modern sociology builds on these theories.

Question 25

• Branches of Interpretivism:

Answer 25

• Symbolic Interactionism (George Herbert Mead):
  
  • Life involves symbols conveying meanings (e.g., ‘chair’ means something to sit on).
  • Meanings change with context (e.g., chair as a shield or ladder).
  • Dramaturgy (Erving Goffman):
    
    • Compares life to theatre; individuals as actors.
    • Impression Management: Controlling behavior to elicit favorable responses (e.g., smiling waiter).
  • Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel):
    
    • People use knowledge to make sense of daily experiences.
    • Assign order to unordered events.
  • Phenomenology (Alfred Schutz):
    
    • People make sense of the world by categorizing/classifying (e.g., child categorizing barking animals as dogs).

Question 26

Verstehen

Answer 26

empathic understanding of human behaviour.

Question 27

Weber’s social action theory

Answer 27

Weber’s social action theory states that all human actions, or social actions, are informed by the unique experiences, desires, and contexts that every human interacts with.

Question 28

acculturation vs. diffusion

Answer 28

Cultural diffusion can happen far from the parent culture and without its active input. Ie, when the ideas, beliefs, and culture specific items are deemed by others to be “a good idea”. Acculturation happens within a parent culture when smaller cultures are folded into it.