Chapter: 1 - Intro, 5, 8, 9 Flashcards
What are the levels of organization?
Atoms→molecules→ cells→tissues→organs→ organ systems→ organisms→population of species→ecosystem of different species →biosphere
How many organ systems does a human have?
11
What is cytology?
Study of the cells
How many cells does an adult have?
60 - 100 trillion
What is histology?
Study of tissues
What are the four families of tissues?
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
What are the two skeletal systems?
Axial and appendicular
What organs/ components is the skeletal system made of?
Bones, cartilages, and joints & bone marrow
What are the primary functions of bones, cartilages, and joints?
Support, protect, soft tissues; bones store minerals
What is the primary function of bone marrow?
Site of blood cell production (red marrow); storage of energy reserves in fat cells (yellow marrow)
What organs/ components make up the muscular system?
Skeletal muscles & tendons, aponeuroses
What is the primary functions of skeletal muscles?
Provide skeletal movement control entrances to digestive and respiratory tracts and exits of digestive and urinary tracts; produce heat; support skeleton; protect soft tissues
What is the primary function of tendons and aponeuroses?
Harness forces of contraction to perform specific tasks
What are the organ/ components to the nervous system?
CNS - Brain, spinal cord, special senses
& PNS
What is the primary function of the CNS?
Acts as A control center for the nervous system: processes information: provides short term control over activities of other systems
What is the primary function of the brain?
Performs complex integrative functions: directs many simple involuntary activities
What is the primary function the of spinal cord?
Relays information to and from brain: performs less-complex integrative functions: directs many simple involuntary activities
What is the primary function of special senses?
Provide sensory input to the brain relating to sight, hearing, smell, taste, and equilibrium
What is the primary function of the peripheral nervous system?
Links CNS with other systems and with sense organs
What are the organs/ components of the cardiovascular system?
Heart; Blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, and veins; blood
What is the primary function of the heart?
Propels blood and maintains blood pressure
What is the primary function of blood vessels?
Distribute blood around the body
What is the primary function of arteries?
Carry blood from heart to capillaries
What is the primary function of veins?
Return blood from capillaries to the heart
What is the primary function of blood?
Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood cells; delivers nutrients and hormones; removes waste products; assists in temperature regulation and defence against disease
What organs/ components make up the respiratory system?
Nasal cavaties, paranasal sinuses; pharynx; larynx; trachea; bronchi; lungs, alveoli
What is the primary function of nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses?
Filter, warm, humidify air, and detect smells
What is the primary function of pharynx?
Conducts air to larynx; a chamber shared with the digestive tract.
What are the primary functions of the larynx?
Protects opening to trachea and contains vocal cords.
What are the primary functions of the trachea?
Filters air; traps particles in mucus; cartilages keep airway open
What is the primary function of the bronchi?
Same functions as the trachea - through volume changes
What is the primary function of the lungs?
Responsible for air movement during movements of ribs and diaphragm; include airways and alveoli
What is the primary function of the alveoli?
Acts as site of gas exchange between air and blood
Does every human have the same amount of bones?
No - Human variation
What is anatomical position?
Standing upright , arms at sides, palms facing forwards (little fingers by the thigh), feet flat on the floor, face straight ahead
What is supine?
Lying down with the face up
What is prone?
Lying down with the face down
How do refer to the right or left of the body?
Talk about subjects right or left
What direction is cranial?
Towards the head
What direction is posterior or dorsal?
Towards the back
What direction is anterior or ventral?
Towards the front
What direction is caudal?
Towards the feet
What do you use cranial and caudal?
When referencing to the truck/ body
What direction is superior used for?
Towards the top - Generally above
What direction is inferior used for?
Towards the bottom - Generally below
How do we reference something inside the body?
Deeper
How do reference something near the surface of the body?
Superficial
What direction does medial refer to?
Towards the midline of the body
What direction does lateral refer to?
Towards the side
What does proximal refer to?
Closer to the truck of the body
What does distal refer to?
Away from trunk of the body
What are the three planes of the body?
Frontal or coronal plane; sagittal plane; and transverse, horizontal, or cross-sectional plane
How is the frontal/ coronal plane split?
Separates the body into posterior and anterior
How is the sagittal plane split?
Separates the body into right and left portions. Divides the body side to side.
What is the mid-sagittal plane?
Divides the body exactly down the middle
How is the transverse plane split?
Separates the body up and down
What plane does lots of rotation occur in?
Transverse
How are planes and axises related:
They are perpendicular
What axis goes with the frontal plane?
Sagittal axis
What axis goes with the transverse plane?
Vertical axis
What axis goes with the sagittal plane?
Frontal axis
What are the 7 classifications of bones?
- Sutural Bones
- Irregular Bones
- Short Bones
- Pneumatized Bones
- Flat Bones
- Long Bones
- Sesamoid Bones
What makes up the axial skeleton?
Skull, Vertebrae, rib cage, hyoid, and auditory ossicles - 80 bones
What makes up the appendicular skeleton?
Pectoral girdle, upper extremity, pelvic girdle, and lower extremity - 126 bones
What connects the axial and appendicular skeleton?
Girdle
What are elevations and projections?
Processes and ramus
What are processes?
Any projection or bump
What is a ramus?
An extension of a bone making an angle to the rest of the structure
What are examples of openings?
Sinus or antrum; meatus or canal; fissure; foramen
What is a sinus or antrum?
A chamber within a bone, normally filled with air
What is a meatus or canal?
A passageway through the substance of a bone
What is a fissure?
An elongated cleft
What is a foramen?
A rounded passageway for blood vessels and/ or nerves
What are joints?
Joints are where bones come together - joints do not always allow movements
What is another term for joints?
Articulations
What usually holds a joint together
cartilage, fluid, and dense connective tissues
What types of joints does the axial skeleton tend to have?
Immoveable or slightly moveable joints
What types of joints does the appendicular Skelton tend to have?
Freely moveable joints
What type of joints are synarthroses?
Immoveable/ no movement joints
Types of synarthroses joints?
Fibrous, cartilaginous, and bony fusion
Types of fibrous joints?
Sutures and gomphosis
What are suture joints?
Joints are found only in the skull.
How do sutures work?
Bony edges interlock and short dense connective tissue fiber hold the bones together.
What are gomphosis joints?
The joint between a tooth and the alveolar fossa of the maxillae or mandible.
How do gomphosis joints work?
Periodontal ligaments hold the tooth to the bone in the gomphosis
What are cartilaginous joints?
A synchondrosis is a joint in which hyaline cartilage separates the ends of the bones involved in the joint.
Examples of cartilaginous joints
Ribs
What are bony fusion joints?
A synostosis occurs if bones fuse together to form one bone.
Examples of bony fusion joints?
Infants have more bones than adults. Bones can fuse into one.
What type of joints are amphiarthroses?
Slightly movable joints
What are amphiarthroses joints?
- A syndesmosis occurs when two bones are connected by relatively long connective tissue ligaments.
- Connecting bones using a fibrocartilage pad forms a symphysis: aka a type of cartilaginous joint
Example of amphiarthrose joint
Spine
What type of joints are diarthroses?
Freely movable joints
What are diarthroses joints?
Synovial joints are typically found at the ends of long bones in the upper and lower limbs.
What are the 6 basic characteristics of the synovial joints?
- Joint capsule
- Articular cartilages
- Joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
- Synovial membrane lining the joint capsule
- Accessory structures
- Sensory nerves and blood vessels
Synovial joints: Associated features
Bursae and tendon sheath (other associated features: ligaments, cartilage, fat)
What is a bursae?
- Sacs of synovial fluid which act as cushions
- usually found between muscles or where tendon crosses bone
What is a tendon sheath?
- modified bursae surrounds and lubricates tendons
What does itis mean?
inflammation
What is arthritis?
Cartilage is damaged –> hard sponge is damaged. Sponge releases and absorbs fluid.
What are the three functions of synovial fluid?
- Lubricates (the surfaces of the articular cartilages on the ends of the bones)
- Nourishes the chondrocytes (by entering and exiting the articular cartilages due to the forces acting on the joint)
- Act as a shock absorber
Movements of hinge joints
Uniaxial flexion and extension
Movements of plane joints
Non axial or multi axial
Movements of pivot joints
Uniaxial rotational movements
Movements of condylar joint
Biaxial flexion/ extension and abduction/ adduction
Movements of saddle joints
Biaxial joints that also allow circumduction
Movements of ball and socket joints
Triaxial joints
Movements of plane synovial joints
- Allow side to side and back and forth movement
- Simplest type of joint movement
- Surfaces nearly flat or slightly concave/ convex
Movements of hinge synovial joints
- Movement in one plane
- Convex surface fits into concavity of articulating bone
- Most common type of joint
Why can’t all joints have a full range of motion?
Stability
Movements of pivot synovial joints
- Rotation about a central axis
- Rounded bone fits in depression of another
- Also found between radius and ulna
Example of pivot joint
Neck
Movements of a condyloid synovial joints
- Biaxial movement
- condylar head fits into concave depression
What does oval joints allow?
Two planes of movement
Do saddle joints allow for rotation?
No
Movement of the ball and socket synovial joints
- rounded surface and cupcake socket
- multi-axial, provides greatest range of motion
- Shoulder joint is another ball and socket joint
More stable = ?
Less movement
How can the hip and shoulder both be ball and socket joints yet the hip is more stable?
The socket covers more of the ball
Are flexion and contraction the same?
No
What plane does flexion go in?
Sagittal plane
Examples of Angular movements
- Extension and flexion
- Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
- Abduction and adduction
What do angular movements do?
Increase or decrease the joint angle
What is hyperextension?
Past normal range of motion –> may cause injury
What would you call bending the spine sideways?
Lateral flexion
What plane does abduction usually move in (99% of the time)?
Frontal Plane
Examples of circular movements?
Rotation and circumduction
What do circular movements do?
Permitted in joints where a rounded or oval surface articulates with a depression on another bone
How many planes are required to make a cone shape?
2
Examples of special movements
- Eversion and inversion
- Protraction and retraction
- Elevation and depression
What do special movements do?
Applies to movements that do not comply with generalized movements around an axis
What are skeletal muscles
Are contractile organs directly or indirectly attached to bones of the skeleton
What functions do skeletal muscles perform?
- Produce skeletal movement
- Maintain posture and body position
- Support soft tissues
- Regulate entering and exiting of material
- Maintain body temperature
What are the categories of skeletal muscle fibres?
Parallel muscles, convergent muscles, pennate muscles, and circular muscles
Parallel muscles
- Most muscles are parallel: Cell contract and the entire muscle contracts
- Only pull one way
- Less cells to contract
Subcategories of parallel muscles
- Parallel muscles
- Parallel muscles with tendinous bands/ rectus abdominis
- Wrapping muscle
Convergent muscles
- Can pull in different directions
- Cross section of the muscle is thin
- Some movements can’t have whole muscles contract
Pennate muscles
- Little less efficient
- designed more for strength
- more cells can contract
- striation is going on an angle
Subcategories of pennate muscles
- Unipennate muscle (ex: extensor digitorum)
- Bipennate muscle (ex: rectus femoris)
- Multipennate muscles (ex: deltoid)
Examples of circular muscles
Talking, whistling, moving lips
What is an origin?
Remains stationary
What is an insertion?
Moves
What is the location of the insertion and origin in reference to each other?
- The origin is proximal to the insertion (most common)
- Origin is more medial/ proximal
- Insertion is more distal (the part that moves)
- Insertion usually moves to origin
Insertion and Origin: Broad aponeurosis to to a narrow tendon
Insertion: Tendon
Origin: Aponeurosis
What does a tendon do?
Muscles to bones
Insertion and origin: Several tendons at one end and only one at the other
Origin: Multiple
Insertion: Single
The three types of muscle groups:
- Prime movers (agonists)
- Synergists
- Antagonists
What are prime movers (agonists)?
Are chiefly responsible for producing a particular movement
What are synergists?
Assist the prime mover in performing that action
What is a fixator?
A synergist stabilizes the origin of the agonist
What is an antagonist?
Antagonists are muscles whose actions oppose that of the agonist
If the agonist produces flexion, the ______ will produce extension
antagonist
How are muscles named?
- Specific body regions
- Shape of the muscles
- Orientation of muscle fibres
- Specific or unusual features
- Identification of origin and insertion
- Primary functions
- References to actions
