Chapter 1: General Principles & Energy Production Flashcards
What does the GI System Do?
Digests and absorbs food
What does the Respiratory System Do?
Takes up oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide
What does the Cardiovascular System do?
Distributes nutrients, oxygen, and the products of metabolism
What does the Reproductive system do?
perpetuates the species
What does the nervous+endocrine systems do?
coordinate and integrate functions of the other systems
What is the average young males body make up?
18% protein, 7% mineral, 15% fat, 60% water
What can body fluids be divided into?
intracellular and extracellular fluid
What contains a very small amount of total body fluids
transcellular
Are electrolytes and proteins distributed equally or unequally among the body fluids?
unequally
What charge does protein have at physiologic pH?
negative
What are the cells that make up the bodies of all but the simplest multicellular animals called?
extracellular fluid
From extracellular fluid, what is taken up and discharged?
oxygen and nutrients are taken up and metabolic waste products are discharged
Where did all life originate from?
the ocean
What is the ECF divided into in animals with a closed vascular system?
interstitial fluid, circulating blood plasma, and lymph fluid that brides these two
Where is the interstitial fluid part of the ECF?
outside the vascular and lymph systems, bathing the cells
What makes up total blood volume?
plasma and red blood cells
How much of the total body water is extracellular?
one third
How much of the total body water is intracellular fluid?
two thirds
What is the buildup of body fluids extracellularly or interstitially in tissues called?
Edema
What is the increased fluid of edema related to?
Increased leak from the blood or increased removal by the lymph system
How much does the intracellular component of body water account for?
40% of body weight
How much does the extracellular component of body water account for?
20% of body weight
What percentage of the extracellular component accounts for the vascular system?
25% of body weight (plasma=5%) and 75% outside the blood vessels
What is the total blood volume
8% of body weight
What is more meaningful to consider when talking about important substances and interactions among them?
number of molecules, electrical charges and particles of a substance per unit volume of a particular body fluid. IE moles, equivalents, or osmoles
What is a mole?
A gram-molecular weight of a substance that is the molar weight of the substance in grams
What is a millimole (mmol)
1/1000 of a mole
What does each mole consist of?
6x10^23 molecules
What is the micromole (umol)
1/1,000,000 of a mole
What is the standard unit for expressing the amount of substances in the SI unit system?
The mole
What is the molecular weight of a substance?
The ratio of the mass of one molecule of the substance to the mass of one-twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12
Is molecular weight a ratio that is dimensionless?
yes
What is a useful unit for expressing the molecular mass of proteins?
The kilodalton
What is in the form of an electrically charged particle in the body?
solutes
What does one equivalent of NaCl dissociate into?
1 Eq Na+ and 1 Eq of Cl-
Is electrical equivalence the same as chemical equivalence?
no
What is an ideal solvent for physiological reactions?
water
Explain the dipole moment that the water molecule has?
oxygen (-) in the molecule pulls electrons away from the hydrogen (+) atoms which makes the molecule polar. This allows water to dissolve charged atoms and molecules
What does the hydrogen bonding in water allow for?
high surface tension, high heat of vaporization/heat capacity, and high dielectric constant
What transfers heat and conduction of current?
water
What are electrolytes?
Molecules that dissociate in water to their cation and anion equivalents
The separations in electrolytes and proteins that are unevenly distributed in body fluids play an important role in the establishment of what?
membrane potential and action potential
What are some of the important electrolytes in physiology?
Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-
What is essential to life?
The maintenance of a stable hydrogen ion concentration in body fluids
What is pH of water at 25 degrees C in which H+ and OH- ions are present in equal numbers?
7.0
In the pH of healthy individuals, pH is slightly alkaline and maintained at what range?
7.35-7.45
What is sensitive to pH?
enzymatic activity and protein structure
What is an acid?
molecules that act as H+ donors
What is a base?
molecules that remove H+ from solutions
What completely dissociates in water?
strong acids and strong bases
How is body pH stabilized?
By the buffering capacity of the body fluids
What is a buffer?
A substance that has the ability to bind or release H+ in solution which keeps the pH of the solution relatively constant despite the addition of acids or bases
What is the isohydric principle?
All buffer pairs in a homogenous solution are in equilibrium with the same H+
What is the excess of acid?
acidosis
What is the excess of base?
alkalosis
How does acid-base disruption impact the body?
It impairs the delivery of oxygen to and removal of carbon dioxide from tissues
What are metabolic disorders that have to do with acid-base imbalances?
metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis
What is diffusion?
The process by which a gas or substance in a solution expands or moves from a region to another because of motion of its particles to fill the available volume
When is a particle likely to move into or out of an area?
When it is present in high concentration
What is net flux?
When solute particles from areas of high concentrations move to areas of low concentration
What is Fick’s law
The difference in concentration of the diffusing substance divided by the thickness of the boundary
What is the concentration gradient?
The magnitude of the diffusing tendency from one region to another separated by a boundary
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of solvent (often water) molecules into a region where there is a higher concentration of a solute (often sodium) to which the membrane is impermeable
What is osmotic pressure?
The pressure necessary to prevent solvent migration
What does osmotic pressure depend on?
The number of particles in a solution rather than the type
What is an ideal solution?
Osmotic pressure is related to temperature and volume in the same way as the pressure of a gas
What determines osmotic capacity?
The concentration in the body fluids. The more concentrated the solution, the greater the deviation from an ideal solution
What is osmolarity?
The number of osmoles per L of solution. it is affected by volume of solutes in solution and temperature.
What is osmolality?
The number of osmoles per kg of solvent
What is the freezing point of normal human plasma?
-0.54 degrees C
What is tonicity?
The osmolality of a solution relative to plasma
What is isotonic?
Solutions that have the same osmolality as plasma
What is hypertonicc?
Solutions that have greater osmolality than plasma
What are the major electrolytes of plasma?
glucose and urea
What is a nucleoside?
A sugar linked to a nitrogen containing base
What are the physiologically important bases?
purines and pyrimidines (rings)
When an inorganic phosphate is added to a nucleoside what is formed?
nucleotide
What are the backbones for RNA and DNA
nucleosides and nucleotides
What are most purines and pyrimidines synthesized from?
amino acids in the liver
What are the pyrimidines catabolized into?
B-amino acids
What is the normal blood uric acid levels in humans?
4 mg/dL or 0.24 mmol/L
Where is uric acid reabsorbed, filtered, and secreted?
the kidneys
How much uric acid is filtered?
98%
How much uric acid is secreted?
2%
What is gout?
A disease characterized by recurrent attacks of arthritis; urate deposits in the joints, kidneys, and other tissues; and elevated blood urine uric acid levels
Where is DNA found?
In bacteria, nuclei of eukaryotic cells, and in mitochondria
What is DNA made up of?
Adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine
What is DNA further compacted into?
chromosomes
What is the fundamental unit of DNA?
gene; sequence of DNA nucleotides that contain the information for the production of an ordered amino acid sequence for a single polypeptide chain
What is near the transcription start site of the gene?
promoter; the site where RNA polymerase and its cofactors bind
How many alleles will each gene have in a diploid cell?
two
SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) changes within or outside the coding region can do what?
have great consequences for gene function
When do gene mutations occur?
When the base sequence in the DNA is altered from its original sequence
How do alterations occur?
insertions, deletions, or duplications
What are point mutations?
single base subsitutions
What is a genome?
A collection of genes within the full expression of DNA from an organism
What is mitosis?
somatic cell division where two DNA chains separate, each serving as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary chain. The DNA chain in each new daughter cell is the same as the parent cell
What is mitosis catalyzed by?
polymerase
What is meiosis?
Reductive division which takes places during maturation. Half the DNA from the father and half from the mother result in a zygote.
What is aneuploidy
The condition in which a cell contains other than the haploid number of chromosomes or an exact multiple of it (common in cancerous cells)
How does RNA differ from DNA?
It is single stranded, has uracil in place of thymine, and its sugar is ribose
What is the production of RNA to DNA?
Transcription
What is transcription catalyzed by?
RNA polymerase
What is translation?
Protein synthesis with mRNA
What are nutritionally essential amino acids?
Amino acids that cannot be made in the body ie arginine and histidine
How many amino acids make up a protein?
100 or more amino acids
What are proteins made up of?
Large numbers of amino acids linked into chains by peptide bonds joining the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of the next
What are smaller chais of amino acids called?
peptides or polypeptides
What is translation?
The process of protein synthesis. Conversion of information encoded in mRNA to a protein
Where does translation start?
In the ribosomes
Translation stops where?
UGA, UAA, or UAG
What are fatty acids broken down into in the body?
acetyl-CoA
What does Acetyl-CoA condense to form?
acetoacetyl-CoA
What is a ketone body?
compounds that the liver produces when the body metabolizes fat for energy (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone
Two types of lipids in cells are
structural lipids and neutral fat
What are free fatty acids bound to?
albumin
What are water insoluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K
What is an essential constituent of cell membranes?
cholesterol
How do statins work?
They reduce cholesterol synthesis by inhibiting HMG-CoA
What are the essential fatty acids
linolenic, linoleic, arachidonic
Why are essential fatty acids necessary?
They are precursors of prostaglandins, lipoxins, leukotrienes and other compounds
What are prostaglandins
series of 20-carbon unsaturated fatty acids containing a cyclopentane ring. Important in female reproduction, cardio system, inflammation, and causation of pain
