Chapter 1-3

Question 1

What is classified as thinking?

Answer 1

• Day-dreaming
• feelings
• one though leading to another
• skills
• innate (born skills)
• development
• ideas

Question 2

Main thinking forms for this class

Answer 2

• Purposeful
• Critical
• Factual Knowledge
• Problem Solving
• Decide
• Curiosity

Question 3

How to use facts and knowledge

Answer 3

• Good thinking is not acquired simply by “rules” but by habits

Question 4

Critical Thinking

Answer 4

• Systematic evaluations or formulations of beliefs, or statements, by rational standards
• Systematic because it involves procedures and methods
• Evaluation and Formulation because used to both asses existing beliefs and to devise new ones
• Rational standards because beliefs are judged by how well they are supported by reasons
  -The active process that makes reasoning different from “mere thinking” is an inference
  ~an inference is a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence

Question 5

Why does it matter to think critically

Answer 5

• humans do things for reasons
  ~our desires and beliefs furnish us the reasons (for acting)
  ~Desires and beliefs come from values and concepts
• Humans can reflect on the reasons for doing things
  ~we not only believe things, we can think about why we believe them
  ~we want things, and can ask ourselves why we want them

Question 6

Why critical thinking

Answer 6

• our lives are defined by our actions and choices and our actions and choices are guided by our thinking (so important for our thinking to be good)

Question 7

Some key terms: Anatomy of an Argument

Answer 7

• Statement: a sentence that is either true or false
• Argument: a collection of statements intended to support another statement
• Premise: statement given in support of another statement
• Conclusion: the statement that the premises are intended to support
• Logic: the study of good reasoning and the rules that govern it
• Empiricism:

Question 8

Critical thinking involves logic

Answer 8

• critical thinking is broader than logic because it also involves the truth or falsity of statements, the evaluation of arguments and evidence, the use of analysis and investigation, and the use of many other skills that help us to decide what to believe or do
• critical thinking leads to knowledge, understanding, and empowerments

Question 9

Sample statements

Answer 9

• a triangle has three side
• I’m tired
• you’re a liar
• 7+5=12
• The moon is made of cheese
• You shouldn’t hit your friend with a shovel
• The best explanation for my behavior is that I was hypnotized
• Romantic comedies are better than thriller movies.

Question 10

Sample arguments

Answer 10

• Arguments have two reasons and they have to be linked and support the conclusion
• When Karen takes the bus, she’s always late, Since she’s riding the bus today, she’ll certainly be late
• The exorcist was a great movie because it was really scary, and movies that are really scary is a great movie.

Question 11

3 Aspects of analyzing arguments

Answer 11

• understanding the propositions asserted (what is being said)
• determining wether the premises are plausible (skills to verify the true or false statements)
• Assessing the supporting relation between premises and conclusions (reasoning skills)

Question 12

Arguments: Deductive

Answer 12

• Deductive arguments: an argument whose purpose is that the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises
• Valid: it is not possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false (if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true)
• Sound: an argument is sound if and only if it is both valid and the premises are true

Question 13

Examples of a Deductive argument

Answer 13

-Jane is at home or Jane is at the movie theater
Jane is not at home
So, Jane is at the movie theater
- Every poet is a good cook
Tom is a poet
So, Tom is a good cook
- Simcox lives in Gallup, NM
Gallup, NM is west of ABQ
So, Simcox is west of ABQ

Question 14

Arguments: Inductive

Answer 14

• Inductive arguments: an argument is inductive whose purport (claims) is only that the premises provide probable support for the conclusion
• Strong: if the premises are true, then the conclusions are likely true(a matter of degree: strong or weak)
• Cogent: an argument is cogent if and only if it is both strong and the premises are true

Question 15

Examples of Inductive argument

Answer 15

• August 23 is tomorrow
  The average low is 50 degrees
  Therefore it won’t hit freezing tomorrow

Question 16

Examples of Inferences: words that indicate that one thought is (or maybe) intended to support another thought

Answer 16

• because
• due to the fact that
• since
• for that reason
• given that
• therefore
• thus
• consequently
• it follows that

Question 17

The complexity of language

Answer 17

• the number of words can generate an infinite number of different sentences
• Different ways of saying the same thing
• Different words have similar meanings
• Difference between written and spoken language
• Language is always changing and developing
• Words that are used less often can change meanings faster than common words

Question 18

Meaning of language

Answer 18

• How do words get their meanings?
  ~ The meaning of a word consists of what it refers to
  ~What people picture that associated with the word
  ~Sentences (rather than words) are the primary bearers of meaning
• How do words differ from the meaning of the word vers in the sentences

Question 19

Problems with Reference Theory

Answer 19

• unless
• therefore
• unlikely
• where
• terms whose meaning understood but whose reference is unknown

Question 20

nine functions of language

Answer 20

-Descriptive: to convey factual information about something
~A description is a statement of perceived facts
- Evaluative: that whereby we use language to make a value judgment about something (or Someone)
- Emotive: to express emotions
-Evocative: the language used to evoke a certain emotion from an audience (often employed by poets and songwriters, etc)
- Persuasive: intended to convince people to accept something or act in some way
- Interrogative: using language in order to elicit information
~Questions or demanding something
- Directive: to tell others to do something ( to command or advise)
- Performative: the utterances are themselves to be regarded as actions
~ The action is the saying of the words
~ Examples: the language preforms as well as doing. Mostly in legal terms
- Recreational: sometimes we use language to amuse ourselves and others

Question 21

Examples

Answer 21

If you want to succeed in the life you need a good education (persuasive)
Retail clothing stores can increase sales by 30% through adverting in local media
You can increase your sales by 30% through advertising (persuasive)
I love you more than anyone else I’ve known (descriptive and emotive)
Peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers (recreational)
Your essay must be at least 1,500 words and must include a full bibliography (directive and descriptive)

Question 22

Definition: Sence and Reference

Answer 22

-Sence: of a term is the set of characteristics a thing must-have for the term to apply correctly to it
~ guitar: musical instrument, having a neck, turning keys, certain acoustical specification, etc.
- Reference: of a term is all of the things to which the term applies
~the class of things to which the terms refers
~ guitar: all of the guitars in the world (acoustic, electric, Fenders, Gibsons, etc.

Question 23

Purposes of definitions

Answer 23

-Reporting: reports the standard usage of a term (conveys the information needed to use the term correctly in ordinary discourse.
~AKA “lexical definitions”
~Example: Fawn
~to attempt to gain favor by obsequiousness
~ a young deer
-Stipulative: introduces a new meaning to a familiar word, or introduces a new word by specifying that it shall mean such-and-such
~Useful in the case of new technologies, new scientific discoveries, new professions, etc.
~Examples: work: (in physics) the product on the force applied to an object and its displacement in the direction of that force
~Valid: the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises
- Essentialist: best considered as a compressed theory
~ Essence is commonly understood in the sense of “whatness” (what something is)
~Essence means that which makes something the thing that it is, and is that without which it would not be that thing
~ Example: “Beauty”, “Justice”, “education”, “freedom”, “love”, etc

Question 24

Assessing Reportive definitions

Answer 24

-Too Broad: the defining phase refers to something not included in the reference of the term being defined
~Coal is a drink
-Too narrow: the defining phrase fails to refer to some things that are in the reference of the being defined
~A factory is a place where cars are made
- Too broad and too narrow: the defining phrase refers to some things that the term does not and also fails to refer to some things which the term does
~ A doctor is a person who treats physical ailments
- Circular: the definition includes the term being defined
~ a violinist is a person who plays the violin
- Obscure: the definition does not express clearly the meaning of the term being defined
~an opossum is a nocturnal, arboreal marsupial

Question 25

Principle of Charity

Answer 25

when a statement is open to more than one interpretation, adopt the interpretation that is most plausible and defensible

• there is little pride in defeating artificiall weakened arguments
• if we fail to adopt the most charitable interpretation, we make ourselves vulnerable to criticism (we have only “refuted” a misinterpretation of an argument, not a genuine argument)
• in order to present the best argument possible, we need to confront the strongest opposition we can
• so, it is our responsibility to interpret our opponents charitably, rather than conveniently

Question 26

Ambiguity

Answer 26

-an ambiguous claim is one that can be assigned more than one meaning
Three types
- Referential ambiguity
-Grammatical ambiguity
- Ambiguity of use or mention

Question 27

Referential ambiguity

Answer 27

- a statement whose ambiguity is due to the ambiguity of a particular word or phrase is called a referentially ambiguous claim
Examples
- I know a little Greek
- This book is hard
- My friend doesn't use glasses

Question 28

Distributive vs collective

Answer 28

• Another type of referential ambiguity is that between the distributive and the collective use of a term (also call grouping ambiguity)
  Examples
• Cashiers make more money than store managers (collective use correct)
• Americans eat millions of pints of ice cream every week (collective use correct)
• People are getting older (collective use correct)

Question 29

Grammatical ambiguity

Answer 29

• A statement whose ambiguity is due to its structure is called grammatically ambiguous
  Example
• Jane likes chocolate more than her husband (likes chocolate)
• Basketball players with beginner’s skills only may use court #1
• Abraham Lincon wrote the Gettysburg Address while traveling from Washington to Gettysburg on the back of an envelope

Question 30

Use and mention

Answer 30

• Ambiguity arising from the failure to distinguish between using and mentioning a phrase
  Example
• Tom said I was angry.
• Tom said, “I was angry.”

Question 31

Vagueness

Answer 31

• a statement is vague whose meaning is indistinct or imprecise
• vagueness is always a matter of degree
  Compare
• Donnie is old
• Donnie is at least 80
• Donnie’s 84th birthday is next Saturday
• Vagueness is not something to avoid at all costs: generally, we should aim to avoid only undesirable vagueness

Question 32

Fix the ambiguity

Answer 32

• We will be discussing violence on tv
  (We will be discussing the violence seen on tv)
• Eileen hit the boy with the book
  (Eileen used to book to hit the boy)
• Harold saw the Loch Ness monster with old binoculars
  (Harold used old binoculars to see the Loch Ness monster)
• All of my exes don’t live in Texas
  (Not all of my exes live in Texas)

Question 33

Analytic, contradictory, and synthetic statements

Answer 33

• Analytic statment: true by definition
  ~ Bachelors are unmarried males.
• Contradictory statement: false by definition
  ~Stan is a bachelor and his wife is a nice person
• Synthetic statement: truth or falsity does not depend entirely on the meanings of the words
  ~ Bachelors are afraid of commitment