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PSYCH 211/D > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the purpose of statistics.

A

Statistics are tools used to present and interpret information.

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2
Q

Define descriptive statistics.

A

Descriptive statistics summarize and present large amounts of numbers in a meaningful way.

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3
Q

Explain inferential statistics.

A

Inferential statistics allow us to make inferences about a population based on information taken from a sample.

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4
Q

How do inferential statistics help in research?

A

They provide tools to generalize findings from a sample to the larger population.

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5
Q

What is the role of correlational statistics?

A

Correlational statistics measure relationships between variables.

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6
Q

How are predictive statistics used?

A

Predictive statistics are often used to predict the value of one variable based on another.

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7
Q

What is a common visual tool used to present data?

A

Bar graphs are a common visual tool used to present data.

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8
Q

How can correlation be illustrated?

A

Correlation can be illustrated through various graphical representations, such as scatter plots.

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9
Q

Define independent variable in experiments.

A

The independent variable (IV) is the variable that is directly manipulated by the researcher in a true experiment, often considered the cause.

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10
Q

Describe the role of the dependent variable in an experiment.

A

The dependent variable (DV) is the variable that depends on the levels of the independent variable and is often considered the effect.

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11
Q

How are independent and dependent variables related in an experiment?

A

The independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable, which is measured to assess the outcome.

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12
Q

How are participant variables categorized in social sciences experiments?

A

In social sciences, participant variables are often considered independent variables but are not directly manipulated by the experimenter.

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13
Q

Define organismic variables in the context of experiments.

A

Organismic variables are types of participant variables in social sciences that are not directly manipulated by the experimenter.

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14
Q

Describe the relationship between cause and effect in experimental variables.

A

In experimental variables, the independent variable represents the cause, while the dependent variable represents the effect.

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15
Q

Define numeric variables.

A

Numeric variables, also known as quantitative variables, are variables that represent measurable quantities and can take on a range of numerical values.

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16
Q

Describe categorical variables.

A

Categorical variables, or qualitative variables, are variables that represent categories or groups and do not have a numerical value.

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17
Q

How do continuous variables differ from discrete variables?

A

Continuous variables can take on an infinite number of values within a given range, while discrete variables can only take on specific, distinct values.

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18
Q

Define nominal variables.

A

Nominal variables are categorical variables that consist of mutually exclusive and unordered categories that differ in quality, such as eye color or sex.

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19
Q

What are ordinal variables?

A

Ordinal variables are categorical variables where the order matters, but the intervals between the values are not equal, such as ranking preferences.

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20
Q

Explain interval variables.

A

Interval variables have equal and meaningful intervals between values, but the zero point is arbitrary, such as temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit.

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21
Q

Describe ratio variables.

A

Ratio variables have equal and meaningful intervals between values and possess a true zero point, such as height, weight, or temperature in Kelvin.

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22
Q

How is the cost per carat classified in terms of variables?

A

The cost per carat is classified as a ratio variable because it has a true zero point and meaningful intervals.

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23
Q

What is an example of an ordinal variable?

A

An example of an ordinal variable is ranking dessert choices from best (1) to worst (5), where the order is significant.

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24
Q

Define continuous variables with an example.

A

Continuous variables can take on any value within a range, such as weight or testosterone levels.

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25
Q

How are qualitative variables categorized?

A

Qualitative variables are categorized into nominal and ordinal types based on whether order matters.

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26
Q

What distinguishes interval variables from ratio variables?

A

The key distinction is that interval variables have an arbitrary zero point, while ratio variables have a true zero point.

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27
Q

Give an example of a nominal variable.

A

An example of a nominal variable is genotypes, which categorize individuals without any order.

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28
Q

How can popularity be classified in terms of variables?

A

Popularity can be classified as a categorical variable, specifically an ordinal variable if ranked.

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29
Q

What is the significance of the zero point in ratio variables?

A

The zero point in ratio variables indicates the absence of the quantity being measured, making comparisons meaningful.

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30
Q

How can frequency distribution be applied to different types of variables?

A

Frequency distribution can be applied to nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio variables to summarize the number of occurrences of each value.

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31
Q

Do median and percentiles apply to all types of variables?

A

Median and percentiles can be calculated for ordinal, interval, and ratio variables, but not for nominal variables.

32
Q

What statistical operations can be performed on interval and ratio variables?

A

For interval and ratio variables, you can compute sums, differences, means, standard deviations (SD), and standard error of the mean (SEM).

33
Q

How do the types of variables affect the choice of statistical analysis?

A

The type of variable determines which statistical methods are appropriate; for example, nominal data may only allow for frequency counts, while interval and ratio data allow for a wider range of statistical analyses.

34
Q

Describe the role of quality and quantity in variable classification.

A

Variables can vary in quality (categorical) or in quantity (numerical), influencing how they are measured and analyzed.

35
Q

Describe correlational designs in research.

A

Correlational designs measure relationships between two or more variables without random assignment to levels of the independent variable.

36
Q

Define predictor and criterion variables in correlational research.

A

The predictor variable is similar to the independent variable, while the criterion variable is akin to the dependent variable.

37
Q

How do correlational designs differ from experimental designs?

A

Correlational designs do not involve random assignment to levels of the independent variable, making them more naturalistic but unable to infer causation.

38
Q

Explain the significance of the phrase ‘correlation does not imply causation.’

A

This phrase highlights that just because two variables are correlated, it does not mean that one causes the other.

39
Q

What should researchers be cautious of when interpreting correlations?

A

Researchers should beware of spurious correlations, which can occur when two variables appear to be related but are actually influenced by a third variable.

40
Q

Describe the observation method in measurement.

A

The observation method involves watching children engage in play behavior and noting instances of aggressive behavior.

41
Q

How does self-reporting contribute to measurement methods?

A

Self-reporting allows individuals to express their attitudes, feelings, and other behaviors that are difficult to observe directly.

42
Q

Define standardized tests in the context of measurement methods.

A

Standardized tests provide scores from large samples, establishing a standard against which individuals can be assessed, such as the IQ Bell Curve.

43
Q

What is the significance of the IQ Bell Curve in standardized testing?

A

The IQ Bell Curve represents the distribution of IQ scores in a population, allowing for comparison of an individual’s score against a standard.

44
Q

Do standardized tests provide individual assessments?

A

Yes, standardized tests assess individuals against a standard derived from scores of large samples.

45
Q

Describe the characteristics of a reliable measure.

A

A reliable measure is repeatable under similar research conditions.

46
Q

Define validity in the context of research measures.

A

A measure is valid if it measures what it is supposed to.

47
Q

How does internal validity affect research outcomes?

A

Internal validity refers to whether the outcome is dependent on the variables studied.

48
Q

Explain external validity in research findings.

A

External validity indicates whether findings can be generalized to other situations and participants.

49
Q

Differentiate between reliable and unreliable measures.

A

Reliable measures produce consistent results, while unreliable measures do not.

50
Q

What is the significance of a measure being valid?

A

A valid measure accurately assesses what it is intended to measure.

51
Q

How can researchers ensure the reliability of their measures?

A

Researchers can ensure reliability by conducting tests under similar conditions and checking for consistency.

52
Q

What implications does low external validity have for research findings?

A

Low external validity means that the findings may not apply to other contexts or populations.

53
Q

Describe proactive history as a threat to internal validity.

A

Proactive history refers to external events or conditions that occur before the start of an experimental study but still influence the outcomes.

Proactive history threatens internal validity by introducing confounding variables that predate the study, potentially biasing the results.

54
Q

Define selection bias in the context of quasi-experiments.

A

Selection bias occurs when the groups being compared in a study are not equivalent at the start, which can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the effects of the intervention.

55
Q

How does maturation affect internal validity in research studies?

A

Maturation refers to the natural development or changes in participants that occur over time during a study, which can confound the results if not controlled.

56
Q

What is the importance of having a control group in research studies?

A

A control group is essential to isolate the effects of the treatment or intervention, helping to ensure that observed changes are due to the treatment rather than other factors.

57
Q

Explain the concept of attrition in research studies.

A

Attrition refers to the loss of participants during a study, which can lead to biased results if the dropouts differ significantly from those who remain.

58
Q

Identify the types of populations that may be particularly affected by threats to internal validity.

A

Elderly populations and those with psychopathology are often more susceptible to threats to internal validity due to factors like maturation and attrition.

59
Q

How can proactive history impact the outcomes of a study?

A

Proactive history can introduce confounding variables that affect participants’ behavior or responses, leading to misleading conclusions about the study’s findings.

60
Q

Describe the role of equivalent groups in ensuring internal validity.

A

Equivalent groups at the start of a study help to ensure that any observed effects can be attributed to the treatment rather than pre-existing differences.

61
Q

What are alternative causes in the context of research observations?

A

Alternative causes refer to other factors or variables that may influence the outcomes of a study, complicating the interpretation of results.

62
Q

Describe sampling bias in research.

A

Sampling bias occurs when the sample selected for a study is not representative of the larger population, potentially leading to skewed results.

63
Q

Explain the Hawthorne Effect.

A

The Hawthorne Effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed or studied.

64
Q

Define external validity.

A

External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to, or have relevance for, settings, people, times, and measures other than the ones used in the study.

65
Q

How can deception be ethically used in research studies?

A

Deception can be ethically used in research studies when it is necessary to prevent bias in the results, but it must be justified, and participants should be debriefed afterward.

66
Q

Discuss the conflict between internal and external validity.

A

There is often a conflict between internal and external validity, as enhancing the control of variables to improve internal validity may limit the generalizability of the findings to real-world situations.

67
Q

What is the relationship between truth in a study and truth in real life?

A

The relationship highlights the challenge of ensuring that findings from a controlled study accurately reflect real-world scenarios, impacting the study’s external validity.

68
Q

How does generalization relate to external validity?

A

Generalization is a key aspect of external validity, as it refers to the ability to apply findings from a study to broader contexts beyond the specific conditions of the research.

69
Q

Define inferential statistics.

A

Inferential statistics are used to make inferences or generalizations about a population based on sample data.

70
Q

Describe the relationship between sample estimates and population parameters.

A

Sample estimates are used to approximate population parameters, allowing researchers to draw conclusions about the larger group.

71
Q

How is sample size related to research in social sciences?

A

Sample size is crucial in research as it affects the reliability and validity of the estimates made about the population.

72
Q

What is the purpose of sampling in research?

A

Sampling allows researchers to gather data from a subset of a population to make inferences about the entire population.

73
Q

Define laboratory research in the context of experimental designs.

A

Laboratory research is a controlled setting where experiments are conducted, but it may not generalize to natural settings due to its contrived nature.

74
Q

What ethical issues can arise in true experimentation?

A

Ethical issues, such as the inability to impose forced sleep deprivation, can rule out true experimentation.

75
Q

How does the manipulability of variables affect experimental design?

A

If the variable of interest cannot be manipulated, researchers may need to use a quasi-experimental design instead.

76
Q

Describe quasi-experimental design and its characteristics.

A

Quasi-experimental design involves assigning subjects to groups based on innate (non-random) criteria rather than random assignment.

PSYCH 211/D (9 decks)

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