Chapter 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of structure; means “to cut” or “cutting backwards”
Comparative Anatomy
Cutting and separation (or examination and dissection) of animal organs
Why is it easier to study anatomy in animals than in humans?
- More ethical
- Cheaper
- More numerous
- Study of more than one species to analyze evolutionary needs
Surface Anatomy
The study of form and markings of the body surface; visualizing or palpating (no cutting)
Gross Anatomy
The study of structures visible to unaided eye using cutting or dissection
- Developmental Anatomy
- Embryology
- The study of zygote developing into its adult form (over time)
Embryology: Study of zygote developing from conception to 8th week of gestation
Histology
The study of TISSUES with a microscope
Cytology
(C is for ____)
Study of CELLS with a microscope
Pathology
The study of anatomical changes due to disease (also over time)
Anatomical Variation
Important for…
No two humans are exactly alike;
-Variable number of organs
-Variation in organ locations (fingerprints, lymph nodes, kidney location: horseshoe kidney, pelvic kidney; heart vessels, etc)
Important for clinical diagnoses. Especially in the case if situs inverses (organs are in opposite side of body than usual)
Physiology
The study of function
Is the basis for new drugs and medical procedures
Experimental Sciences
Neurophysiology
Endocrinology
Reproductive physiology
Comparative Physiology
Study of different species
Why is it easier to study physiology in animals than humans?
- Ethics
- Cost
- Numbers
- Study of more than one species to analyze evolutionary trends
The structure & function of the body are not mutually exclusive - what does that mean?
- Not independent of each other
Structure mirrors function:
- bones of skull are heavy to protect brain
- thin air sacs (alveoli) permit movement of gases from lungs to blood aka gas transfer
Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical —> Cellular —> Tissue —> Organ —> System —> Organism
Life is characterized by a hierarchy of complexity. What does hierarchy mean?
Pattern of organization where small things combine to form more complex things
Chemical Level
Atoms - Smallest unit of matter
Combined together through covalent or ionic bonds to form:
Molecules - Composed of two or more atoms (H2O)
Macromolecules - Composed of large groups of molecules (DNA, protein, etc)
Protein is made up of amino acids
Cellular Level
Organelles - Composed of macromolecules (mitochondria, cytoplasm, etc.)
Cells - Composed of organelles (basic functional and structural units of an organism)
Tissue Level
Tissues - Groups of cells that work together to perform a similar function (smooth muscle tissue)
Organ Level
Organs - Groups of tissues that have specific functions and recognizable shapes (stomach)
System Level
Organ Systems - Groups of organs with a common function;
Example - Digestive system: all aspects of taking in and breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating wastes (mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, etc.)
Organismal Level
Organism - Collection of organ systems
11 Systems of the Human Body
- Integumentary
- Skeletal
- Muscular
- Nervous
- Endocrine
- Cardiovascular
- Lymphatic
- Respiratory
- Digestive
- Urinary
- Reproductive
To be alive, something must have all 6 of these characteristics:
_________________________________
Clinical/legal criteria vs biological of alive
Biologically:
1. Metabolism - Sum of all chemical processes in the body, including catabolism (breaking down
- Ex: digestion) and anabolism (building up - Ex: building muscles, storing nutrients)
- Responsiveness: Ability to detect and respond to internal and external changes
- Movement: Motion of whole body, individual organs, single cells, and structures in cells (macroscopic and microscopic)
- Growth: Ability to ↑ body size due to an ↑ in size of cells, number of cells, extracellular fluid/matrix, or all
- Differentiation: Ability to develop a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. • What cell type give this ability? Stem cells
- Reproduction: Ability to form new cells (growth, repair) or a new individual
___________________________________________________________
– Clinical or Legally dead:
• No brain waves for 24 hr. • No reflexes • Respiration and heartbeat artificial
– Organism is dead, but organs, tissues, cells are not due to artificial respiration or heartbeat
Homeostasis:
Characterized by who?
Claude Bernard (1813-78)
– Living things have stable internal conditions regardless of external conditions
Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
– Called this phenomena ‘Homeostasis’
Homeostasis: Definition and Examples
A condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment
– It is a dynamic condition meant to keep body functions in the
narrow range compatible with maintaining life
• What is meant by ‘dynamic’? Always moving or changing to maintain range; has average w/set point
– Ex: Blood glucose levels range between 70 and 110 mg/dL
-Loss causes illness or death
– Regulated body fluids.
Homeostasis & Body Fluids
Body fluids definitions & types
Body fluids:
– Dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals
• For cellular communication to maintain homeostasis
– Intracellular Fluid (ICF):
• Fluid within cells
– Extracellular Fluid (ECF):
• Fluid outside cells
– Interstitial fluid: Between cells w/in tissues
– Blood Plasma: In blood vessels
– Lymph: In lymphatic vessels (immunity)
– Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Around brain & spinal cord
– Synovial fluid: In joints
– Aqueous humor: In eyes
Homeostasis is constantly being challenged. What are the types of challengers?
• Physical (external) insults:
- intense heat or lack of oxygen
• Internal changes: a drop in
blood glucose due to lack of food
• Physiological stress: demands of work or school
– Intense prolonged disruptions
• Result in disease or death
– Heat shock, malnourishment
– Mild disruptions
• Restored quickly with minimal to
no harm done • Done so via Feedback Systems
Feedback Systems
Pathways that facilitate communication between cells or organs that detect changes in homeostasis and those that restore homeostatic conditions.
• Three components:
– Receptor
• Monitors changes in a homeostatic controlled condition and sends input to the control center
– Ex: Specialized nerves in the skin act as temperature receptors and signal brain if temperature changes
– Control center
• Sets the range of values to be maintained
– Usually neural tissue/brain
• Evaluates signals (aka input) received from receptors
• Generates an output command.
• Generates an output command.
– Output = nerve signals, hormones, or chemicals
– Ex: Brain evaluates temp input and sends output to effectors if hot or cold
– Effector
• Receive signals (aka output) from control center to produce a response that changes the condition & restore homeostasis
– Example: skeletal muscle (too cold) or sweat glands (too hot).
Draw pathway!
Negative Feedback Loop
High BP and temperature example
Body senses a change and activates mechanism to REVERSE change
- Physiologic Ex:
• Blood pressure regulation
- External or internal stimulus increases BP
- Baroreceptors detect high BP and send nerve impulse (input) to the brain (control center)
- Brain evaluates and sends nerve impulses (output) to heart (effector organ) causing it to slow and blood vessels to widen, which causes BP to decrease and restore homeostasis
Another example:
• Thermoregulation - HOT
– Receptors in skin/brain sense ↑ blood temp.
• Send neural input to brain (control center)
– Control center in brain sends neural output
– Cutaneous blood vessels dilate (blushing) and sweat glands initiate sweating
• Blood temperature should ↓
• Thermoregulation - COLD
– Receptors in skin/brain sense ↓ blood temp.
• Send neural input to brain
– Control center in brain sends neural output to effectors
– Cutaneous blood vessels constrict and skeletal muscles initiate shivering
• Blood temperature should ↑
______________________
– Increase (I) - influence of increasing core body temperature on the probability of vasodilation? Blood vessels will dilate in response to an increase of core body temperature (change (heat) sensed by receptor which sends input to control center (brain) and which sends output to effectors to reverse (vasodilation) and maintain HS)
Positive Feedback Loop
• Body senses a change and activates mechanisms to AMPLIFY the change
– Leads to change in the same direction.
• Normal way to produce rapid change
– Ex: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, generation of nerve signals
• Childbirth (parturition):
– Fetal pressure on the cervix is detected by
pressure receptors
– Nerve input is sent to the hypothalamus in the brain
– Oxytocin (output) is released from the brain
into the blood
– Oxytocin causes effector uterine contractions which further push the baby against the cervix
List the 6 subdivisions of Anatomy
- Surface
- Gross
- Developmental
- Histology
- Cytology
- Pathology
Integumentary system
Components: skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, & oil glands
Function: protects body, regulates temp, eliminates some waste, helps w/Vit D production, detects touch, pain, warmth, & cold, stores fat, & provides insulation
Skeletal System
Components: bones and joints & associated cartilage
Functions: supports and protects body, provides surface area for muscle attachment, aids body movement, houses cells that produce blood cells, stores minerals and lipids
Muscular System
Components: skeletal muscle
Functions: body movement, maintains posture, produces heat
Nervous System
Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes, & ears
Functions: generates neural signals for communication, homeostatic
Endocrine System
Components: hormone producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes
Function: Regulates body activities by releasing hormones to effector organs
Cardiovascular System
Composed of: blood, heart, blood vessels
Functions: Carries oxygen and nutrients in blood to cells, regulate temperature and water content of body fluids
Lymphatic System
Components: spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, & tonsils; also cells that carry out immune responses - B cells, T cells,
Functions: Returns proteins and fluid to blood, contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B and T cells that protect against disease-causing microbes
Respiratory System
Composed of: lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes
Function: Transfers oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout bloodstream, helps regulate acid-base balance, produces sounds
Digestive System
Composed of organs in gastrointestinal tract: mouth, esophagus, stomach, gall bladder, pancreas, salivary glands, intestines, and anus
Function: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste
Urinary System
Composed of: kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
Function: Produces, stores, and eliminates urine, maintains acid-base balance, maintains mineral balance, and regulates production of red blood cells.
Reproductive System
Components: Gonads (testes in male, ovaries in female), and associated organs. Female - uterus, vagina, Fallopian tubes, and mammary glands. Male - seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, vas deferens
Interstitial fluid
Fluid found in spaces around cells in tissues
Synovial fluid
Fluid in the joints
Input
Confirm. Signal sent from receptors to control center, could be neural, hormone, etc
Output
Confirm. Signal sent from control center in either a negative or positive feesback loop to restore homeostasis. Could be neural, hormonal, etc
Catabolic
Breaking down of nutrients in metabolism
Effector
Receptor
Control Center
Stimulus
Controlled Condition
Anabolic
Building up within the metabolism (example muscles)
Subdivisions of anatomy (6)
Surface
Gross
Developmental
Histology
Cytology
Pathology
