Chapter 1 Flashcards
What is the trouble with studying humans?
complexity: 500 million neurons in the brain
variability: every person is different
reactivity: reactions differ when observed vs. not observed
can use a model species to better understand what happens in humans
What is the trouble with studying animals?
complexity: range of 5,600-257,000,000,000 neurons
variability: reactions differ when observed vs. not observed
communication: differences in communication
What is empiricism?
involves using evidence from the senses as the basis for conclusions (the empirical method)
What is a hypothesis?
a tentative explanation or prediction about some phenomenon
What is a theory?
a set of formal statements that explain how and why certain events or phenomena are related to one another
What is hindsight understanding?
after viewing a behavior, propose an explanation that makes sense in that context
What is understanding through hypothesis testing?
test possible explanations through scientific method
What makes a good theory?
organize information in a meaningful way
is testable
predictions are supported by research
conforms to law of parsimony
What is the law of parsimony?
if two theories are good, the simpler one is correct
How do you obtain data?
obtain information related to hypothesis
scientific observation
precise, repeatable methods of measurement
What is a variable?
any characteristic that can vary
What is an operational definition?
defines a variable in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure it
a description of a property in concrete, measurable terms
What makes good measurements?
reliability: always produce the same score when measuring the same thing
validity: must be conceptually related to the property of study
power: ability of a measure to detect the conditions specified in the operational definition
What is a self-report measure?
participants report on their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings, experiences, or behavior
a questionnaire or interview
What are some issues with self-report measures?
social desirability bias: desire to make good impression
asking suggestive or leading questions
What is an observational measure (measures of overt behavior)?
observers record observable behavior
requires an operational definition of the behavior you’re looking for
observers must be trained to consistently code their observations
we want reliable, consistent measurements
What is issues with overt behavior studies?
just like the desirability bias in self report measures, participants can change their behavior when being observed
demand characteristics: aspects of an observational setting that make people behave as they think they should
What are psychological tests?
specialized tests designed by psychologists to measure particular variables
personality tests, intelligence tests, neuropsychological tests
What is descriptive research?
seeks to explain how an individual behaves. especially in natural environments
some examples include, case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys
What is a case study?
a detailed investigation of an individual, group, or event, a single case studied in great deal
What are the benefits of case studies?
study an odd case in great detail
case may provide information that challenges a theory or provide new information that generates new ideas
What are some issues with case studies?
poor method of determining cause-effect relationships
generalizability is questionable
researcher bias
What is naturalistic observation?
observing people/animals in their natural environment
What are the advantages of naturalistic observation?
provides a rich description of behavior
can avoid demand characteristics
What are the limits of naturalistic observation?
usually, experimenter cannot inform a person they are being observed
requires long periods of observation to get a single measure of a desired behavior
What is survey research?
ask participants questions through interviews or questionnaires
get a feel for the views, behaviors, experiences or traits of a population
What is a population?
the entire set of individuals about whom we wish to draw a conclusion
What is a sample?
a subset of individuals drawn from a population
What is a representative sample?
every member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen
What is a central tendency?
describing the center of the data
What is the mean?
average value of all measurements
What is a median?
value in the middle of the distribution
What is a mode?
value of the most frequently observed measurement
What is variability?
how much measurements differ from one another
What is range?
value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution
What is standard deviation?
describes the average difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution
What is correlational research?
looking for an association between two (or more) measured variables
researchers care about relationships between variables
What is correlation?
correlation coefficient (r): describes the relationship between two variables
ranges from -1.0 to +1.0
sign indicates direction
absolute value indicates strength
What is positive correlation?
an increase in one variable relates to an increase in the other
What is a negative correlation?
an increase in one variable relates to a decrease in the other
What is does zero correlation mean?
there is no relationship
the two variables are not correlated to one another
What are the advantages of correlational research?
show the strength of parent relationships
can be used to make predictions about variables
identifies “real-world” associations
What are the disadvantages of correlational research?
can’t assume cause-effect relationship exists
relationships may be due to a third unmeasured variable
What is experimental research?
manipulation of one variable
measuring changes in another variable, while holding other factors constant
What is a variable?
a property whose value can change across individuals and over time
What is an independent variable?
the variable that is manipulated in an experiment
What is a dependent variable?
the variable that is measured in a study
What is the experimental group?
receives a treatment
What is a control group?
not exposed to treatment (basis for comparison)
What is random assignment?
a procedure in which each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any one group within an experiment
What is between groups (between subjects) design?
each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants
What is repeated measures (within subjects) design?
each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable
What are ethical standards?
designed to protect the welfare of both human and animal subjects in psychological research
What are the ethical rules that psychologists must follow?
- Protect and promote the welfare of participants
- Avoid doing harm to participants
- Not carry out any studies unless the probable benefit is proportionately greater than the risk
- Provide informed consent
- Ensure privacy and confidentiality
What is deception?
participants are misled about nature of research
controversial, violates informed consent
permitted only if no alternative is available
must be debriefed by competent person about the true nature of research
What was the 1979 Belmont Report?
respect people’s right to make decisions for and about themselves, no influence or coercion
minimize risks and maximize benefits
must distribute the benefits and risks equally to participants without prejudice towards particular individuals/groups
What was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study?
clinical study conduced between 1932-1972
purpose: observe natural history of untreated syphilis
deception: African American men were told they were receiving free health care, and they were not informed that they were being infected with syphilis
What was the Milgram Experiment?
the “experimenter” was in charge of the session
the “teacher”, a volunteer for a single session, they were led to believe that they were actually the subjects of the experiment
the “learner”, an actor and a confederate of the experimenter, who pretended to be a volunteer
What was the Stanford Prison Experiment?
psychological effect of perceived power, focused on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers
as days passed, revolts began, prisoners began to act “crazy”, abuse from the guards occurred
the participants internalized their roles
What are the ethics involved with non-human animals?
must be trained in research methods, the care of laboratory animals
appropriate anesthesia and pain management
minimize discomfort, infection, illness, pain
procedures causing discomfort and pain only used when study shows potential for benefit
What are the “three R’s” of working with animals?
- Replacement: methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in research
- Reduction: use of methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals
- Refinement: use of methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain and enhance animal welfare
What is fear conditioning in animals?
help animals learn to avoid roads
preferentially use alternative roads
anthropogenic noise
Why do we use animals in studies?
control the influence of heredity
control the influence of learning
practicality
need to apply procedures that would be considered unethical with humans
What is ethics?
it’s a big deal
rules are very strict and enforced
peer review before publishing
accountability
