chap 8 Flashcards
what is the guiding principle of cognitive perspective?
people differ in how they perceive and interpret their social environment
what is field dependence?
“see the forest, not the trees” … people oriented, attend to social cues, looks for context
what is field independence?
“see the tree, not the forest” …
anti social preferences, ignores distractions, looks for details
what are the four examples of individual differences in interpretation of the social world?
- locus of control 2. attributional style 3. optimism/pessimism 4. implicit theories
what is personal construct theory?
assumes that people think about the world like amateur scientists … they hold theories about how the world works.. “things will work out for the best”
how is personal construct theory used?
people test their theories with data of life. They want to make sense of events “why did I flunk the test?”
How does George Kelly think of “personal constructs”?
help predict behaviour, implicit behaviour, very individualized, resistant to change, extremities, to understand person: know their constructs
what is locus of control?
general tendency to explain events in your life. (eg. feelings of luck, wishing, believe you can’t get sick, etc)
what are the two types of locus control?
- internal (i believe i can control what happens to me in my life)
- external (i believe fate is in the hands of others, a lot of god)
what is learned helplessness?
actions should have consequences, “if i put in effort i will get reward” vs “why bother? i never win”
.. if nothing goes your way you come to believe you are helpless
What three questions to ask self if you observe non-convince children between behaviour and outcome?
- is cause stable or unstable? (eg. it’s not gonna change)
- is cause internal or external? (eg. it’s about me)
- is cause global or specific? (eg. every part of my life)
What motivates optimism/ pessimism?
concerns of people expectancies for the future— people are motivated by goals
How much effort you put into goals is influenced by:
how much you want the goal (it’s value) and how confident/ doubtful you are that you can get it (expectancy)
-goal directed behaviour-
what is self-efficiency?
specific beliefs- can i successfully do the behaviours necessary to my goal?
what is optimism?
outcome expectancies - it’s going to work out fine!
what is pessimism?
it’s not going to work out
how would an optimistic person react when faced with a challenge?
perseverance, use more coping strats, “opportunity for growth”
optimism does not equal what?
control or self-efficacy
explain the Norem and Cantor (1986) defensive pessimism study
compared honour students with optimism vs def. pessimism expectations for their grades.
Def. pessimists got higher gpa than optimistic (same goals different strats)
explain Norem and Illingworth (1993) study on defensive pessimism
Opt & defen. pess study math ability, half opt & half pess told to tell feelings about test BEFORE test, def. pess had more anxiety & more distracted but did just as well as opt.
what is optimism/pessimism vs realism?
positive expectations of future: imagine desired outcome
negative expectations of future:
imagine undesired outcome
realistic orientation: imagine mix of desired and undesired outcomes
Which: optimism, pessimism or realism shows the best results for no PPD
with easy or difficult delivery, realism has an even score for PPD
how does defensive pessimism work?
expect negative outcome>become anxious>motivated to avoid failure
how does realistic orientation work when thinking positively?
think positive>become hopeful>have a backup plan just incase
how does realistic orientation work when thinking negatively?
think negative>become anxious>make a plan just in case
what is the implicit theory of intelligence?
- is intell fixed and immutable(entity)?
- is intell fluid and can be changed (incremental)?
what do entity theorists believe?
failure means one is stupid, they become defensive
-focusses on performance, avoid challenge
what do incremental theorists believe?
failure = one should be working harder, and they should try a diffferent way (seek mastery)
-focusses on learning, likes challenge
what does implicit mean?
very closely connected with, meaning is implied but not totally explained
what does explicit mean?
stated clearly and in detail, fully expressed
how do entity theorists think about new information about a person/group?
they reject it, believe traits are fixed and can’t be changed/ added/ altered
what does an incremental theorist think about new info of a person/group
accept it, they believe people can change, behaviour is results of situations, goals and motivations
what does an incremental theorist think about prejudicial attitudes?
think they are malleable, can be changed and invited more interactions with minority groups
what does an entity theorist think about prejudicial attitudes?
they are unchangeable, avoid situations that may test your attitudes, reject activity’s that reduce prejudice
explain Carr et al. prejudice study
white student asked to engage in discussion with a white or black student in “attitudes about diversity (race, age, gender, etc) on campus”
those with fixed idea of prejudice sat 12 inches further from black student than the malleable prejudice student
unlike traits, cognitive perspective characteristics are…
mostly hard on experience and are (potentially) malleable
what is self-concept?
it’s your identity! (who are you?)
name, gender, looks, roles, aspirations, fears, life narrative
what is self-concept in terms of a memory-aid?
we are better at remembering things that are attached to our self concept, than not attached
what is self concept in terms of making decisions?
helps us decide what direction/ choices to make based on our self concept. we seek consistency, want to avoid cognitive dissonance
what is cognitive dissonance? rhymes with…
the state of having inconsistent thought, beliefs, or attitudes, especially relating to decision making
how does self esteem affect self-concept?
self esteem reflects how much you like/dislike aspects of your self-concept
what does “possible self” mean?
it’s who you want to become, and who you’re afraid of becoming
they provide goals, motivation and incentives for continuos behaviour
how can motivation wane? (possible selves)
motivation coukd wane if possible self is only a desired self. (they become fantasies, won’t happen)
what is plausible self?
plausible selves include strategies to obtain or avoid the possible self
what do possible selves need to motivate behaviour?
strategies and support
what is an ought self?
a guid for behaviour in pursuit of goal!
the attributes one believes one should possess. responsibilities, duty and obligations
what is ideal-self?
a guide for behaviour in pursuit of goal!
the part of a persons self-concept that consists of their desires, hopes and wishes. highly motivating
how would ought self reply to failure?
shame, guilt, anxiety
how would ideal self reply to failure?
sadness, disappointment
what does it mean if ideal self is prominent?
oriented towards gain, promoted focus
what does it mean is ought self is prominent?
prevent focus, orientated toward safety/responsibility
at what age do infant recognize self in the mirror?
18 months
at what age do children pretend play, use pronouns and learn expected behaviour?
18-24 months
at what age do children learn about own sex and age?
2-3 years
at what age do children learn social comparisons and private self concepts?
3-12 years
at what age do children learn perspective? (what others think)
13-19
what can a clear self concept lead to?
higher self esteem, less anxiety and depression, higher conscientiousness
what is self concept clarity? (SCC)
the coherence of one’s identity, how confident one is about ones attributes and how consistent and stable the attributes are
how does western culture look at self concept clarity?
wester cultures favour “knowing thy-self” scoring low on scc = confusion
how do eastern cultures view self concept clarity?
easter cultured favour fitting in/harmony
low scores in scc = more attuned to social context
what is social identity?
social identity is the self that others see of you
what are some characteristics of social identity?
visible traits (like being extroverted), style, roles in society, physical aspects (sex, age, race)
does society influence our social identity?
yes
what does media do to self concept?
media provided standards against which we compare ourselves
what is the meaning of “self-objectification”
girls are socialized to internalize an objectifying observers perspective on their own bodies due to society’s standards (can sexualize self by accident)
is self esteem affected by trying to “live up to a cultural ideal”
yes
can Eating disorders affect brain performance
yes
explain fredrickson et al. (1998) study about self-objectification theory
men and women wearing a bathing suit or a sweater take a math test. men did better in a swimsuit, women did far worse
what do most people do when asked “who are you?”
describe demographics, social roles and possible selves, etc
what are the two ‘C’s prominent when asked “who are you?”
Continuity: some things remain stable— the same me as yesterday and last year + growth
Contrast: what makes me unique? —i’m part of a group but also distinct (unique skills)
-what is identity narrative?
the story of your life— story of self each person crafts to provide his/her life with purpose (agency and unity (coherence)
how is self created?
starts with self awareness then gradually develops in sophistication
