Chap 2: Current Paradigms + Integrative Approaches Flashcards
What is a paradigm?
What are 4 major ones?
A paradigm is a set of basic assumptions that define how to conceptualize and study a subject, gather and interpret relevant data and how to think about particular subject. Four major types: biological, cognitive-behavioural, psychoanalytic and humanistic.
What is the biological paradigm? What are 3 areas of research in this paradigm?
The biological paradigm (medical/disease model) is a continuation of somatogenic hypothesis - mental disorders are caused by aberrant biological processes. There are 3 areas of research within this paradigm (behaviour genetics, molecular genetics and neuroscience/biochemistry.
What is behaviour genetics? (biological paradigm)
Behavior genetics is the study of individual diffs in behaviour that are in part attributable to differences in genetics. Many clinical syndromes are disorders of phenotype not genotype and a predisposition (diathesis) may be inherited but not disorder itself.
What are 4 basic methods within behaviour genetics? Describe them.
Behaviour genetics uses 4 basic methods: 1. Family method- genetic predisposition among family members. 2. Twin method - monozygotic (MZ) twins and dizygotic (DZ) twins are compared. When twins are similar diagnostically they are concordant. 3. Adoptees method - study children with abnormal disorders who were adopted and reared apart from parents. 4. Linkage analysis - study inheritance patterns of characteristics whos genetics are understood - genetic markers.
What is molecular genetics?
Molecular genetics - tries specify the particular gene or genes involved and precise functions of these genes. Includes linkage analysis.
What is temperament and the 3 styles outlined by Thomas and Chess? (biological paradigm)
Temperament is differences in reactivity and self-regulation. Thomas and Chess - 3 temperaments styles in young kinds 1) difficult child 2) easy and 3) hard to warm up. These have been linked with personality traits and tendencies with clear implications for understanding abnormal behavior.
What are the 3 categories of adolescent boys as defined by Robins, John, Caspi, Moffitt and Stouthamer-Loeber?
John, Caspi, Moffitt and Stouthamer-Loeber found 3 types of categories of adolescent boys 1) resilient type (cope well) 2) overcontrolling (overly inhibited and prone to distress) and 3) under controlling (impulsive and can seem out of control at times.
What is neuroscience?
Neuroscience - study of brain and NS.
What are the 4 parts of a neuron?
Each neuron has 4 parts: 1) cell body 2) dendrites 3) axon(s) and 4) terminal buttons.
What is a nerve impulse and what is a synapse?
Nerve impulse - change in electrical potential of cell. Synapse - between terminal endings of sending neuron and cell membrane of receiving neuron.
What are neurotransmitters?
Terminal buttons of each axon have synaptic vesicles which are filled with neurotransmitters that allow nerve impulses to cross synapse. The cell membrane of postsynaptic cell has receptor sites that are configured for specific neurotransmitters. Sometimes messages are excitatory - lead to creation of nerve impulses and others are inhibitory - making postsynaptic cell less likely to fire. Inhibitory neurotransmitters act as mood stabilizers or balancers and excitatory ones stimulate brain. Some released neurotransmitters find way back to postsynaptic receptors and some are broken down by enzymes and some pumped back into presynaptic cell through reuptake.
Which neurotransmitters are linked to disorders?
Several neurotransmitters are linked to psychopathology: norepinephrine - released in peripheral sympathetic NS - states of high arousal and involved in anxiety disorders. Serotonin - depression and dopamine in schizophrenia. GABA - inhibits some nerve impulses - implicated in anxiety disorders. Neurotransmitters are made via enzymes - too much or too little of neurotransmitters could be due to defects in metabolic steps. Or by errors in processes where transmitters are deactivated.
What treatments are suggested in biological paradigm?
Describe deep brain stimulation.
How is neuroimaging important?
Prevention or treatment here should be possible by altering bodily functioning. The use of psychoactive drugs increase however and a concern is the rapid increase in prescription and use of psychoactive drugs in children and adolescents. Deep brain stimulation - planting battery-operated electrode in brain that deliver low-level electrical impulses - quite effective though unsure why. Neuroimaging is important to this paradigm also.
What is reductionism?
Reductionism is a view that whatever is being studied can and should be reduced to its most basic elements or constituents. Advances in neuroscience have raised concerned that the role of psychological factors is not receiving enough consideration. Applied neuroscience model is most appropriate for severe mental disorders. Psychological problems need to be understood at multiple levels.
What is behavioural paradigm?
Behavioural perspective - views abnormal behaviour as responses learned in same ways other human behaviour is learned.
Who is Watson? (beahvioural)
Key figure in behaviourism
What occured in reponse to introspection?(behavioral)
As a response to focus on introspection, in 1913 Watson promoted behaviourism instead by extrapolating from work done on animals.
What is behaviourism?
Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour rather than on consciousness.
What are 3 types of learning that attract research of psychs? (behavioural)
- classical conditioning - Pavlov - studied digestive systems in dogs - meat powder to elicit salivation - powder being the unconditioned stimulus and response to it - salivation - unconditioned response. When offering of meat powder is preceded by a bell, the sound of bell is the conditioned stimulus which elicits the salivary response - conditioned response. The CR usually differs somewhat from UCR. Extension happens to CR when repeated soundings of bell are not followed by powder - CR gradually disappears. Watson and Rayner - Little Albert - when Albert reached for white rat, a loud noise was made. Study suggests possible association between classical conditioning and certain emotional disorders. -2. operant conditioning - applies to behaviour that operates on environment. Skinner - reformulated the law of effect - shifting focus from linking of consequences - reflects his contention that stimuli do not so much get connected to responses as they become the occasions for responses to occur in past they have been reinforces - introduced concept of discriminative stimulus - external events that tell organism f it performs a behaviour a consequence will follow. He distinguished two types of reinforcement - positive - strengthening of tendency to respond by presentation of pleasant event. Negative reinforcement - strengthens response by removal or aversive event. Operant conditioning can produce abnormal behaviour ie. conduct disorder. 3. Modelling - imitating others - Bandura - witnessing someone perform certain activities can increase or decrease diverse kinds of behavior.
What is behaviour therapy?
Behaviour therapy - applies procedures based on classical and operant conditioning to alter clinical problems.
What is behaviour modification and the three (four) theoretical approaches?
Behaviour modification - employing operant conditioning as means of treatment. There are three theoretical approaches in behaviour therapy - modelling, counterconditioning and exposure and application of operant conditioning. Cognitive behaviour therapy is often considered a fourth.
What is counterconditioning?
What is systematic desensitisation? What did Wolpe do?
What is aversive conditioning?
Counterconditioning is relearning achieved by eliciting a new response in the presence of a particular stimulus.
A response R1 to a stmlus S can be eliminated by eliciting a new response R2 in presence of that stimulus 0 this is behind therapy technique - systematic desensitization- Wolpe - person with anxiety works with therapist to compile list of feared situations and are taught to relax deeply and step by step imaging or experience these situations allowing them to tolerate more difficult ones -
Aversive - Stimulus attractive to client is paired with unpleasant ie. reduces substance abuse - torpedo) and exposure and application of operant conditioning (mostly used in kids - making positive reinforces contingent on behaviour).
What is cognition?
Cognition - grounds mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging and reasoning.
What is the cognitive paradigm (hint: schemas)?
Cognitive paradigm focuses on how people structure their experiences, make sense of them and relate them to past ones. Cognitive psychs consider learning process more complex in terms of response associations - regarding learner as active interpreter of situation with past knowledge having effect - learner fits new info into existing schema - cognitive sets - new info either fits or the learner fits schema to the info.
What is Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression?
Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression - based on idea depressed mood is caused by distortions in way people perceive life experiences - persuades clients to change opinions of themselves and way interpret life, goal is to provide clients with experiences that will alter their negative schemas and dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes.
What did Ellis believe?
What is his REBT?
Ellis believed that sustained emotional reactions are caused by negative mantras that can irrational beliefs about what is necessary to lead meaningful life.
In his rational-emotive behavior therapy - REBT - aim to eliminate self-defeating - demandingness people impose on self and others - after this therapy client can understand it - therapist also teaches person to substitute for irrational self statements and internal dialogue meant to ease turmoil - provide clients homework assignments to help experiment with new self talk and experience positive consequences of viewing life in better light.
What is CBT?
CBT incorporates theory and research on cognitive and behavioural processes - blend of cognitive and learning principles - pays attention to private events, thoughts, perceptions, self-statements and unconscious (tacit) assumptions and manipulated these process to understand and modify disturbed behaviour.
What is cognitive restructuring?
Cognitive restructuring is changing a pattern of thought that is causing a distribed emotion or behaviour
What is the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic paradigm?
developed by Freud - psychopathology results from unconscious conflicts in the individual. Classical psychoanalytic theory is his original views - encompassed the structure of mind and development and dynamics of personality.
What is classical psychoanalytic theory (Freud)?
Hints - id, ego, superego, pleasure principle, primary + secondary process thinking, reality principle, psychodynamics?
divides mind (psyche) into three parts, id, ego and superego. Id - present at birth - accounts for all energy needed to run psyche - basic urges - source of its energy is biological. ONly as infant develops this energy - libido - converted into psychic energy - all of it unconscious - below level of awareness - seeks immediate gratification and operates according to pleasure principle - when not satisfied - tension and strives to eliminate this. Another means of getting gratification is primary process thinking - generating images of desired - short term satisfaction. Ego is next to develop - primarily conscious and begins to develop from id in second six months of life - deals with reality - planning and decision-making - secondary process thinking - operates on reality principle - mediates demands of reality and immediate gratification desired by id. Superego - operates as conscience and develops throughout childhood from ego. Kids discover many of their impulses are not accepted by parents and incorporate their parents values. Behaviour is an interplay of the three - psychodynamics of personality. The ids instincts and many of superegos activities are not conscious. Ego is primarily conscious but has important unconscious aspects that protect it from anxiety.
What is objective vs. neurotic vs. moral anxiety? (psychdynamic)
When ones life is in danger - objective (realistic) anxiety - egos reaction to danger. A person whose personality is fixated at a stage may have neurotic anxiety - feeling of fear not connected to reality. Moral anxiety - arises when impulses of superego punish individual for not meeting expectation and not satisfying principle that drives superego - perfection principle.
What is a defence mechanism? Name some.
Freud believes anxious ego can be relieved in many ways - objective anxiety - removing or avoiding danger or dealing with it in rational way. Neurotic by a defence mechanism - strategy unconsciously used to protect ego from anxiety - repression - pushing away impulses into unconscious - denial - pushing traumatic experiences into unconscious - projection - external agents that an individual possess but cannot accept in conscious awareness - displacement - redirecting emotional responses from dangerous object to substitute - reaction formation - converting one feeling into opposite - regression - retreating to the behavioural patterns of earlier age - rationalization - inventing reason for unreasonable action and sublimation - converting sexual or aggressive impulses into socially valued behaviours especially creativity - these allow ego to discharge some id energy. Modern psychoactive theorists consider some use of these as adaptive and healthy.
What is classical psychoanalysis based on?
Classical psychoanalysis - based on Freud’s theory of neurotic anxiety - reaction of ego when punished and repressed id impulse presses for expression.
