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Geography > Changing spaces; making places. > Flashcards

Changing spaces; making places. Flashcards

1
Q

What are factors influencing place?
GRASP

A
  • Age
  • Gender
  • Sexuality
  • Religion
  • Position / roles in society.
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2
Q

What is the definition of place?

A
  • A geographical area, multifaceted in the sense that it includes both abstract location, and meaning to an individual.
  • A place can have both objective (like location on a map) and subjective tiers to it (such as emotional attachment) as humans have given meaning to it.
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3
Q

What are the 3 key concepts of a place?

A
  • Location (objective)
  • Locale (objective)
  • Sense of place (subjective)
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4
Q

How is ‘space’ different from ‘place’?

A
  • A place is a geographical area that can be defined objectively, with location - yet has subjective meaning to it humans have added, such as experience living there.
  • A space is considered an area that exists between places - so it does not have the same meaning that places do.
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5
Q

Define ‘space’

A
  • ‘Space’: Exists between different places, and does not have the same meanings as these places do.
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6
Q

Give an example of a ‘place’

A
  • 10 Downing Street.
  • It has an objective abstract location in London, able to be plotted exactly on the map.
  • It has subjective meaning, an aspect humans have added in. This is the residence of the Prime Minister, so represents a focus of political power.
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7
Q

Give an example of a potential ‘space’

A
  • The North Atlantic.
  • The North Atlantic ocean is a location, however it is viewed by many people as a ‘space’ as it exists between places, it is an area to cross to reach another ‘place’.
  • It, therefore has no meaning for them.
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8
Q

In simple terms, what is a place?

A

A space to which people have an attachment.

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9
Q

Explain the 3 concepts that make up a place.

A
  • Location: where it physically is situated on the map.
  • Locale: physical setting where social interactions occur
  • Sense of place: feelings the place evokes that are subjective and different between individuals.
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10
Q

List the 7 characteristics that make up a place (different to factors influencing place perception)

A
  • Physical geography (e.g: geology, topography, drainage)
  • Demography (e.g: the number of inhabitants, age, gender, ethnicity)
  • Socio-economics (e.g: employment sectors, education)
  • Culture (e.g: religion, traditions)
  • Politics (e.g: local, regional and national level governance)
  • Built environment (e.g: age and building style architecture, materials)
  • History (e.g: landmarks, historical buildings)
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11
Q

List 5 key factors influencing place perception

A
  • Age
  • Gender
  • Sexuality
  • Religion
  • Role
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12
Q

How does age act as a factor in influencing place perception?

A
  • Age influences place perception as perceptions change as people move through their life-cycle - getting older. (example: a park has a different emotional meaning to children compared to the elderly)
  • In another way, age can influence place perception due to places changing significantly overtime.
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13
Q

What is a complexity with trying to define an area as a ‘space’ or ‘place’?

A
  • A ‘space’ to one person may be a ‘place’ to another, who has experiences involving it.
  • For example, defining the North Atlantic Ocean as a ‘space’ cannot be generalized to everyone as there are those who work in the North Atlantic as fishermen and naval crews for NATO and Russia, having emotional and political meaning.
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14
Q

How does gender act as a factor in influencing place perception?

A
  • Gender influences place perception as many places witness a ‘gender divide’ - this can be seen in the way different genders move around and places they use.
  • Some places are deemed ‘masculine’ such as public spaces like factories and offices, whilst ‘feminine places’ usually were private, such as the home.
  • Therefore, gender influences place perception in terms of societal roles.
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15
Q

How does sexuality act as a factor in influencing place perception?

A
  • Sexuality influences place perception as some places acquire specific meanings as they can become places where people of different sexual orientations cluster.
  • Sexuality, in some zones has led to mapping LGBTQ ‘zones’ - this is where there are clubs, bars and restaurants that are ‘gay friendly’ - such as Brighton being named the ‘Gay Capital’ of the UK.
  • Sexuality extends into political and economic dimensions, in San Fransisco the election of LGBT councillors creates a strong sense of place for the community. Economically, places that attract different ‘sexuality’ demographics are important for attracting the pink dollar - helping with regeneration and rebranding.
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16
Q

How does religion act as a factor in influencing place perception?

A
  • Religion influences place perception as people have given locations spiritual meanings.
  • Natural features such as Ayers rock are regarded as sacred.
  • With Abrahamic religions, places have been given meanings through the construction of synagogues, churches and mosques - such as in Jerusalem, being regarded as the site of crucifixion and the home of the ten commandments.
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17
Q

How does the places role act as a factor in influencing place perception?

A
  • Role influences place perception as individuals perform a variety of different roles dependent on different situations. Our role at any one time can influence our perception of place.
  • For example: in older age, perception of accessibility may be more acute.
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18
Q

How can levels of emotional attachment in a place influence people’s behavior and activity in the place?

A
  • Memory and positive experiences.
  • Memory is a personal thing - able to be positive, negative, short term and long term.
  • Memory and personal experience affects how we feel about places, and how an individual will act in a specific place.
  • Emotional attachment can be social, a shared sentiment such as between countrymen, and another example being sports fans.
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19
Q

Define globalization

A
  • The growing interdependence of countries through increasing global transactions - creating interconnectedness economically, socially, politically and culturally.
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20
Q

What is meant by ‘time-space compression’ ?

A
  • Time-space compression is a spatial term in geography which is defined as the metaphorical shrinking of our world due to advances in technology, communication, transport and capital processes.
  • A set of processes that causes the relative distance between spaces to contract.
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21
Q

Explain ‘time-space compression’

A
  • Communication and flows of goods are quicker and more reliable, capital can be exchanged instantly and more people can travel further with increasing frequency.
  • Space is no longer a barrier it once was to communication, movement of people, goods and ideas.
  • For example: In the UK, much of our food is sourced from abroad, so we no longer have to rely on seasonal patterns on food.
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22
Q

How does globalization and ‘time-space compression’ alter how we perceive places?

A
  • Sense of place can be altered by these global processes as, with a modern interconnectedness of cultures - many can feel either easily accommodated, yet others may feel like their distinct culture is being disturbed so they no longer ‘feel at home’ in a location they’ve lived in all of their lives.
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23
Q

Why is globalization and ‘time-space compression’ complicated for different people?

A
  • There are ‘winners’ and ‘losers’ in advantages from time-space compression.
  • Winners are those who feel comfortable with a state of interconnectedness as social and economic relations take place easily over a larger space.
  • Losers are those who feel a sense of dislocation from the places they grew up in or where they currently reside, some may leave as migrants or relocate to more remote areas.
  • Many respond to globalization with ‘glocalization’ where they emphasize local goods and services in effort to regain local culture and identity they perceive to have been lost.
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24
Q

In what two ways can places be represented?

A
  • Formal means
  • Informal means
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25
Q

List informal ways of representing place

A
  • Media such as TV and Film.
  • Music
  • Art and photography
  • Literature
  • Graffiti
  • Blogs
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26
Q

List formal ways of representing place

A
  • Census data
  • Statistics
  • Geospatial data
  • Maps
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27
Q

What is meant by formal ways of representing place?

A

An objective representation of a place linked to data and statistics surrounding a place.

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28
Q

What is meant by informal ways of representing place?

A

A subjective representation of a place that shows the geographical context of a place through media - that offers sights, sounds and impressions of the place.

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29
Q

What are the differences between formal and informal representations of place?

A
  • A formal representation tends to be more objective and statistically based.
  • An informal representation tends to be more subjective, offering geographical context through sound and sight.
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30
Q

What is an example of a UK formal representation of place?

A
  • The 2021 census, that has occurred every 10 years since 1801 (bar 1941 during wartime).
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31
Q

What are some characteristics of a place a census can offer?

A
  • Crime figures
  • Employment figures
  • Population figures
  • Qualifications and educational attainment
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32
Q

What is the basic source of census data (FORMAL REPRESENTATIONS)

A

Households (a singular person or group of people living at the same address)

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33
Q

What are the advantages of formally representing a place?

A
  • It is based upon reliable, accurate and factual information
  • The data covers wider spatial areas
  • It can show how places change temporally
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34
Q

What are the advantages of informally representing a place?

A
  • Offers multiple perspectives
  • Shows details to a place, such as sight and sound.
35
Q

What are the disadvantages of formally representing a place?

A
  • Data can be harder to interpret
  • Data does not reflect individuals perceptions
36
Q

What are the disadvantages of informally representing a place?

A
  • Information can be heavily biased, personal and subjective.
  • Operates at a smaller scale, allowing for little comparison.
37
Q

Define social inequality

A

The uneven distribution of factors such as income, education or health across a population

38
Q

What is the difference between ‘quality of life’ and ‘standard of living’ ?

A
  • **Quality of life is the extent to which peoples needs and desires are met
  • Standard of living is the ability to access services and goods.
39
Q

What is the word used to describe when social inequality leads to substantial differences between groups of people?

A
  • Deprivation
40
Q

What is used to measure social inequality?

A
  • The Index of Multiple Deprivation
41
Q

What seven factors are assessed spatially under the Index of Multiple Deprivation

A
  • Income
  • Employment
  • Health
  • Education
  • Crime
  • Access to housing and services
  • Living environment
42
Q

What is meant by deprivation?

A
  • Deprivation is where quality of life and standard of living are low, when people have a general lack of resources and opportunities.
43
Q

What does the Index of multiple deprivation allow us to do and what can it NOT do?

A
  • The Index of Multiple Deprivation allows us to identify the most and least deprived areas in England and Wales, allowing for comparison between areas based on several factors.
  • The index cannot tell us how much one place is more or less deprived than another. For example - if a place has a score of 80, it is not necessarily twice as deprived as one with a rank of 160.
44
Q

How is social inequality measured through income? and why is this measure used?

A
  • Income is measured in social inequality through the measurement of PURCHASING POWER PARITY (PPP)
  • PPP allows for global comparisons to be made between countries as costs vary between countries.
45
Q

What is the world banks definition of absolute poverty

A
  • $1.25/day PPP. (purchasing power parity)
46
Q

Apart from purchasing power parity, what are two other methods of measuring income in social inequality?

A
  • Households Below Average Income survey (HBAI)
  • The survey looks at income poverty, defining relative poverty as 60% of the UK median household income.
  • The Gini Coefficient is another technique used to measure levels of income inequality between countries, expressed as a ratio between 0-1.0, the lower the value, the more equal is income distribution.
47
Q

How is housing as an indicator of social inequality measured?

A
  • Housing tenure
  • Housing tenure indicates social inequality, figures are based on whether tenure is ‘owner occupied’ meaning that people usually own the house through mortgage. Some rent from private landlords or local authority councils. In some cases, squatter settlements are where people have NO legal right to the land they occupy.
48
Q

How is education as an indicator of social inequality measured?

A
  • Formal and/or informal education and literacy levels
  • Formal education is provided by schools, colleges, apprenticeships and universities, whereas informal education is skill acquisition.
  • Literacy levels is the measure of the ability to read and write to a basic level, being most commonly used for global comparisons in education inequality.
49
Q

How is healthcare measured as an indicator of social inequality globally and nationally (UK)?

A
  • Doctor-to-patient ratios and postcode lottery
  • Doctor-to-patient ratio describes health inequality at a global scale - observing provision to healthcare.
  • Postcode lottery is where, depending on where you live, the level of medical provision through the NHS varies.
50
Q

How is employment measured as an indicator of social inequality?

A
  • Wages and informal employment

!! It is difficult to measure as an indicator of social inequality as not all countries take counts of employment, and defining what counts as employment is also difficult.

51
Q

Define informal employment

A

Work that is not protected or regulated by the state.

52
Q

What is a composite measure of social inequality?

A
  • The Human Development Index (HDI)
53
Q

What does the HDI include?

A
  • Income (adjusted based on purchasing power parity)
  • Life expectancy at birth
  • Education using adult literacy rate and average years spent in school.
  • It is measured on a scale from 1 (most developed) to 0 (least developed) —> A high index is above 0.8, a medium index is 0.5-0.79 and a low index is below 0.5.
54
Q

What is meant by spatial inequality

A

The unequal distribution of factors, such as income, education or health across geographic space at any one time.

55
Q

List the factors that explain spatial variations in social inequality

A
  • Wealth
  • Housing
  • Health
  • Education
  • Access to services
56
Q

How does wealth impact SPATIAL social inequality?

A
  • Wealth influences well-being and quality of life - being a dominating factor that can influence other factors that create spatial inequality.
  • Low income is linked to ill-health and poor access to services and low educational attainment, which are other causes for spatial inequality.
  • When discussing wealth, disposable income and cost of living influence wealth.
57
Q

Define ‘disposable income’

A

The proportion of a persons income that remains after spending on essentials such as food, taxes and housing.

58
Q

How does housing act as a factor in explaining SPATIAL social inequality?

A
  • Quality of accommodation significantly influences social inequality - the smaller the income of the household, the less choice of housing they have. Inequality with housing occurs when demand exceeds supply, seen in areas of rapid urbanization - creating ill health and high population densities in EDCs and LIDCs.
  • Affordability of housing contributes to spatial inequality, when cost of housing inflates faster than income people are excluded from the housing market - and homelessness becomes an issue in ACs.
59
Q

How does health act as a factor in explaining SPATIAL social inequality?

A
  • There is a clear link between ill health and deprivation - such as poor diet, sub-standard housing and stress.
  • Healthcare varies spatially, so access also plays a part in spatial inequality - certain groups such as the elderly have limited mobility which restricts their access to GPs and primary healthcare. In rural areas, healthcare is more vastly dispersed, creating issues for those without a means of transport.
60
Q

How does education act as a factor in explaining SPATIAL social inequality?

A
  • Differing access to educational opportunities is recognized as a significant element in creating and maintaining spatial inequality.
  • Achieving universal primary education was included in the Millennium Development Goals, so investments are put into education to raise standards of living and quality of life.
  • Illiteracy, with lack of education access perpetuates inequality as it restricts them from advanced employment opportunities. This is a problem especially in remote rural areas within LIDCs.
61
Q

How does access to services act as a factor in explaining SPATIAL social inequality?

A
  • There are stark inequalities between access to services in ACs, EDCs and LIDCs. In Norway, for medical services there are almost 3 doctors per thousand people, whereas in Kenya there are only 0.2.
  • There are variations nationally. In regions such as capital cities, wealth and investment are high so individuals receive greater access to service infrastructure, whereas the peripheral areas suffer from limited access to service provision such as education and healthcare.
  • Digital divide exists in the UK.
62
Q

What 3 factors are accesses to services influenced by?

A
  • Number of services
  • How easy it is to access the service
  • Social and economic factors such as age, gender and income.
63
Q

Define deindustrialization

A

The reduction of industrial activity in a region or country.

64
Q

Define global shift

A

Global shift is the relocation of manufacturing locations from Western Europe and North America to NICs (newly industrialized countries) in Asia and Latin America.

65
Q

What does TNC stand for?

A

Transnational Corporations

66
Q

Why did global shift occur?

A

Containerization and bulk handling brought down relative costs dramatically, contributing to location changes.

67
Q

In what ways has globalization driven structural economic change in places?

A
  • TNC’s are a consequence of globalization - contributing to global shift where manufacture is relocated to newly industrialized countries.
  • AC’s such as America and Japan pioneered the New International Division of Labour (NIDL) that facilitated global shift to labor intensive factories in NICs.
    As a result, there has been structural sector change in these countries —> Now there are higher levels of employment composition in the tertiary and quaternary sectors. POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES!!!
68
Q

What structural change comes from deindustrialization in a country?

A
  • Deindustrialization refers to a reduction in industrial activity, this creates the structural economic change in sectors. As there is a decline in the secondary sector, the tertiary and quaternary sectors become dominant employment sectors.
69
Q

What does NICs stand for?

A

Newly industrialized countries

70
Q

In what way has deindustrialization in ACs led to multiple deprivation in previously industrialized areas?

A
  • Deindustrialization has created a vicious cycle of decay or negative multiplier effect - this is the case for those employed in the secondary sector as the skills required in traditional heavy industry are not easily transferrable to the growing service sector.
  • The negative multiplier effect follows: Increased redundancy –> rising unemployment –> decline in services –> physical environment and infrastructure deteriorates and leads to derelict land and polluted nature –> economically active people move away for more opportunities –> decline in tax base –> loss of investment confidence –> decline in jobs so poverty continues.
71
Q

What are the positives of deindustrialization in ACs?

A
  • Cheaper to import so cost of living is kept down and continues a buoyant retailing sector.
  • Industrial growth in LIDCs can lead to a demand for exports from ACs.
  • Loss of mining and manufacturing (primary and secondary sector) may improve the environmental quality, if deindustrialization is handled correctly.
  • Greater mobility to the quaternary sector can lead to the development of new technologies, promotion of entrepreneurship and can attract foreign investment.
72
Q

What are the negatives of deindustrialization in ACs?

A
  • Job losses concern unskilled workers, so it is hard to move between sectors.
  • It perpetuates economic and social inequality, as it extends the gap between skilled and unskilled workers.
  • Job losses are concentrated in certain areas with particular industries, particularly areas already experiencing social deprivation - this leads to perpetuation of poverty due to structural unemployment.
73
Q

What are the positives of ACs deindustrializing for EDCs and LIDCs

A
  • Export generated income increasing promotes export-led growth - promoting investment and a multiplier effect on the national economy.
  • Offers job opportunities to local areas that had been restricted to the primary sector.
  • Introduces LIDCs to new technology - improving skills and labor productivity
74
Q

What are the negatives of ACs deindustrializing for EDCs and LIDCs

A
  • It is unlikely to decrease inequality as jobs tend to be concentrated in urban areas, triggering migration and increasing density - which can lead to deprivation.
  • Disruptive social impacts from TNCs can lead to exploitation in sweatshops.
  • Overdependence on a narrow sector and economic base
  • Food supplies are destabilized as many move to the secondary sector, abandoning their traditional agricultural based economy.
75
Q

Define comparative advantage

A

The principle that countries or regions benefit from specializing in an economic activity that they are relatively more efficient and skilled in.

76
Q

What is cyclical economic change?

A

Economic change that follows a recurring pattern of economic expansion and contraction.
This follows booms and recessions, proposed by Kondratieff.

77
Q

Explain what is meant by booms and recessions

A
  • Booms and recessions are cycles of growth and stagnation.
  • Booms are triggered by technological innovation - and once these technological innovative industries become old, fewer opportunities for growth exist and a subsequent recession occurs.
78
Q

Why are cyclical economic change (booms and recessions) not evenly distributed?

A
  • There are core regions experience the effects of booms most intensely, due to the multiplier effect being strong - these are regions at the center of innovation where there are greater economic opportunities available.
  • Core regions are able to support technological innovation - uneven distribution is explained by the role of education, government and social organizations have on encouraging or discouraging enterprise or change.
79
Q

What is the impact of recessions on a population?

A
  • GDP, investment spending, household income, business profits and inflation fall whilst bankruptcies and unemployment begin to rise.
  • The average civilians spending power reduces, leading to them making cutbacks on non-essential spending as their dispensable income decreases - this results in fewer jobs in service sectors such as restaurants and bars and leads to a multiplier of unemployment and poverty.
80
Q

What different scales of government are there?

A
  • Transnational governments (such as the EU)
  • National governments (such as the UK)
  • Local governments (such as county, city and parish councils)
81
Q

In simple, what is the role of governments?

A
  • Their role is in decision making, allocating resources - motivated to reduce inequality and poverty.
82
Q

List 5 ways in which the UK national government can tackle social and economic inequality

A
  • Taxation
  • Subsides
  • Planning
  • Law
  • Education
83
Q

How does taxation by the government tackle socio-economic inequality?

A

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