Changing Family Patterns Flashcards
Divorce
Changing patterns in divorce since the 60s
Since the 60s, there have been a great increase in the number of divorces in the uk. the number of divorces doubled between 1961-69 and doubled again by 1972, the trend continued, peaking in 1993 at 165,000
Divorce
Changing patterns in divorce
Reason for fall in divorces
Since the 90s, fewer people are marrying in the first place and are choosing two cohabit instead.
Changing patterns of divorce
Petitions for divorces from women
65% of petitions for divorce come from women which contrast to the situation in the past. in 1946, only 37% of petitions came from women.
Changing patterns of divorce
Couples most likely to divorce
Couples whose marriages are greater risk include those who were married young, have children before they married or cohabit before marriage, or if one or both partners have been married before.
Explanations for the increase in divorce
Changes in law
Kinds of changes in law
- equalising the grounds for divorce between sexes
-Widening the grounds for divorce
-making divorce cheaper
Explanations for the increase in divorce
Changes in law
Equalising grounds
When the grounds were equalised for men and women, in 1923, this was followed by sharp rise and the number of divorce petitions from women.
Explanations for the increase in divorce
Changes in the law
Widening the grounds
The widening of grounds in 1971 to the irretrievable breakdown made divorce easier to obtain and produced a doubling of the divorce rate almost overnight.
Explanations for increasing in divorce
Changes in law
Making divorce cheaper
The introduction of legal aid for divorce cases in 1949, lowered to the cost of divorcing.
History of divorce law
1923- grounds for divorce, equalise for men and women
1969 - divorce law reform act
1961 - 27,000 divorces
2004 - civil partnership act
Explanations for increase in divorce
Changes in law
Other solutions to the problem of an unhappy marriage other than divorce
•Desertion
•Legal separation
•Empty shell marriage
As Divorce became easier to obtain the solutions became less popular.
Explanations for increase in divorce
Declining, stigma and changing attitudes
Past stigmas and Churches of divorce
In the past divorce and divorces have been stigmatised for example, churches tended to condemn divorce, and often refuse to conduct marriage services involving divorces.
Declining, stigma and changing attitudes to divorces
Juliet Mitchell and Jack Goody
important changes since 60s there’s been a rapid decline in stigma attached to divorce and divorce has become more socially acceptable. Rather than divorce being seen as shameful today it is more likely to be regarded as a misfortune.
Secularisation of divorce
What does secularisation mean?
Refers to the decline in the influence of religion in society
Secularisation of divorce
Society becoming more secular
Many sociologist argued that religious institutions and ideas are losing the influence and society is becoming more secular. E.g fall in church attendance rates.
Secularisation of divorce
The result of secularisation
The traditional opposition of the churches to divorce causes less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when making decisions about whether to divorce or not.
Rising expectations of marriage
The functionalist Ronald Fletcher
High expectations people place on marriage today is a cause of rising divorce rates. High expectations make couples less willing to tolerate and unhappy marriage, this is linked to the ideology of romantic love
Rising expectations of marriage
Ideology of romantic love
An idea that has become dominant over the last couple of centuries, which is the belief that marriage should be based solely on love. If love dies there is no longer any justification for remaining married.
Rise, the expectations of marriage
Choice on marriage in the past
In the past, individuals had little choice and who they married, and when the family was a unit of production marriages often contracted largely for economic reasons. Due to this, individuals were unlikely to have high expectations about marriage as a romantic union.
Rising expectations of marriage
The view of marriage today
Marriage is not viewed as a binding contract, but as a relationship in which individual seek personal fulfilment, and this encourages couples to divorce if they cannot find it.
Rising expectations of marriage
Graham, Alan and Graham Crow, 2001
Argued that love, personal commitment and intrinsic satisfaction are now seen as the corner stones of marriage. The absence of these feelings is itself justification for ending the relationship.
Rising expectations of marriage
Ronald Fletcher and high divorce rates
Despite high divorce rates lecture takes an optimistic view and points to the continuing popularity of marriage. Most marry and the high rate of remarriage shows that they haven’t rejected marriage as an institution.
Rise expectations of marriage
Feminist criticism to functionalists view on the continuing popularity of marriage
Feminist critics argue that this is to Rosy view and argue that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflicts and divorce. Functionalists also failed to explain why it is mainly women who seek divorce.
Divorce
Women’s increased financial dependence
Improvements in the economic position
Improvements in their position have made them less financially dependent on their husband, and therefore free to end an unsatisfactory marriage.
Divorce
Women’s increased financial dependence
• women are more likely to be paid work today
• although women less than men, equal pain, anti discrimination laws, have helped narrow the pay gap
• girls great success and education helps them achieve better paid jobs.
Divorce
Women’s increased financial dependence
Graham Allen and Crow
On marriage being economically embedded
They argue that marriage is less embedded within the economic system, and there are fewer family firms, and the family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are not dependent on eachother economically
Divorce
Women’s increased financial independence
Women, having their own separate source of income
Women, having their own separate source of income, and not having to rely on their husband, means that women do not have to tolerate conflict or the absence of love, and more willing to seek divorce if in such circumstances
Feminist explanations of divorce
Dual burden
Feminist argue that married women today bear the dual burden, this has created a new source of conflict between husbands and wives, and leads to a high divorce rate.
Feminist explanations for divorce
The private sphere of patriarchal famillies
While there have been improvements in women’s position in the public sphere of employment, the change in the private sphere of family has been limited as marriages remain patriarchal with men benefitting from their wives triple shift.
Feminists explanations of divorce
Arlie Hochschild emotion work
For many women, the home compares favorably with work. Men’s continuing resistance to doing housework is a source of frustration making marriages less stable. The fact that both partners now work leaves less time in energy for the emotion work needed to address the problems that arise.
Feminist explanations of divorce
When Sigle Rushton
On dual burden vs housewives and divorce
Mothers who have a dual burden are more likely to divorce then nonworking, mothers in marriages with a traditional division of labour. But where husbands of a working wife is involved in housework, the divorce rate lowers.
Feminist explanations of divorce
Cook and gash on working women and divorce rates
They found no evidence that working women are more likely divorce, and they argue that this is because working has now become the accepted norm for married woman.
Feminist explanation of divorce
Radical feminist, Jesse, Bernard, and growing dissatisfaction with patriarchal marriage
Observes that many women feel a growing dissatisfaction with patriarchal marriages and sees the rising divorce rate, and the fact that more petitions come from women is evidence of their grow acceptance of feminist ideas.
Modernity and individualisation of divorce
Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens modern society and marriage
In modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, loses their hold over individuals. as a result, each individual becomes free to pursue his or her own interests, this is known as the individualisation thesis.
Modernity and individualisation of divorce
Becoming unwilling to remain with the same partner
Relationships become more fragile because individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner. If the marriage fails to deliver personal fulfilment, instead they seek what Giddens calls the “pure relationship”
What is a pure relationship
One that exists solely to satisfy each partners needs and not out of the sense of duty tradition, or the sake of the children, this results in higher divorce rates.
Modernity and individualisation of divorce
Modern society and individualism
What is society encourages individualism. For example, women are now expected to work, and are encouraged to pursue their own individual career ambitions. this causes conflict of interest between spouses.
Meaning of a high divorce rate
The New right
They see a high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family that is vital for social stability. Divorce rate create a growing underclass of welfare, dependent female loan, parents who are a burden on the state.
The meaning of a high divorce rate
Feminists
Feminist high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family
The meaning of a high divorce rate
Post-modernist and individualisation thesis
They see a high divorce rate of showing that individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs. They see it as a major cause of greater family diversity.
The meaning of a high divorce rate
Functionalists
Functionalist argue that high divorce rate is not necessarily a threat to marriage as a social institution. It is simply the result of peoples high expectations of marriage. Today the high rate of marriage shows peoples continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.
The meaning of a high divorce rate
Interactionist
David Morgan
They aim to understand what divorce means to the individual. Morgan argues that we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce because every individuals interpretation of it is different.
The meaning of a high divorce rate
The personal life perspective
Carol Smart
divorce can cause problems such as financial difficulties and a lack of daily contract between children and non-resident parents. Carol Smart argues that divorces become normalised, and that family life could adapt to it without disintegrating.
Partnerships
Marriage
Changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years
Fewer people are marrying however, there are more remarriages in 2012 1/3 of all marriages were remarriages. People are marrying later and couples are less likely to marry in church. In 2013 only 30% of weddings were conducted with a religious of ceremonies.
Marriage
Reasons for changing patterns of marriage
Changing attitudes to marriage
There is less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. There is a widespread belief that the quality of couples relationship is more important than its legal status.
Marriages
Reasons for changing patterns of marriage
Secularisation
The churches are in favour of marriage, but as their influence declines, people feel freer to choose not to marry. According to the 2001 census, only 3% of young people with no religion were married, against 17% of those with a religion.
Marriages
Reasons for changing patterns in marriage
Declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage
cohabitation, remaining single, and having children outside marriage are all regarded as acceptable, and pregnancy no longer automatically led to a “shotgun wedding”. In 1989 70% believed that couples who want children should get married, but this dropped to 42% by 2012.
Marriages
reasons for changing patterns of marriage
Changes in the position of women
Women now have better educational and career prospects, and are now less economically dependent on men which gives them greater freedom not to marry. marriage is an oppressive patriarchal institution which dissuades women from marrying ~ feminist view
Marriages
Reasons for Changing patterns of marriage
Fear of divorce
With the rising divorce rate, some may put off marrying because they see the increase likelihood of marriage ending in divorce
Marriage
Reasons for changing patterns of marriage
ReMarriages
The main reason for the increase in remarriages is the rise in number of divorces the two have grown together, so that the rising number of divorces provides a supply of people available to remarry.
Marriages
Reasons for changing patterns of marriage
Age on Marrying
The age of which couples marry is rising because young people are postponing marriage in order to spend longer in full-time education, and to establish themselves in a career.
Marriages
Reasons for changing patterns of marriage
Church weddings
Couples nowadays are less likely to marry in church, due to secularisation, and many churches refuse to marry divorcees or divorcees have less desire to marry in church
Partnerships
Cohabitation
Growth of cohabiting couples
Cohabiting, couples with children are a fast growing family type and there are 2.9 million cohabiting heterosexual couples in Britain. There’s an estimated 69,000 same-sex cohabiting couples.
Partnerships
Cohabitation
Reasons for the increase in cohabitation
Decline in stigma attached to sex, outside marriage. The young are more likely to accept cohabitation increased career opportunities for women mean they have less need for financial security. Secularisation mean that young couples with no religion, and more likely to cohabit.
Partnerships
Cohabitation
The relationship between prohibition and marriage
Although cohabitation is increasing as marriage decreases, the relationship is not clear cut. For some couples cohabitation is the next step on the way to getting married, where others see it as a permanent alternative to marriage
Partnerships
Cohabitation
The relationship between cohabitation and marriage
Robert Chester and Ernestina coast
Robert argues that for most people cohabitation is part of the process of getting married. coast found the 75% of cohabiting couples say that they expect to marry each other.
Partnerships
Cohabitation
A trial marriage?
Cohabitation as a trial marriage
Many feel cohabitation as a trial marriage and intend to marry if it goes well. most cohabiting couples decide to marry if they have children. For some, it is a temporary phase before marriage, because one of both partners are waiting a divorce.
Partnerships
A trial marriage
Cohabitation as a permanent alternative
Andre Bejin 1985
Some people see prohibition as a permanent alternative. Andre argues that cohabitation among some people represents a conscious attempt to create a more personally negotiated and equal relationship
Partnerships
A trial marriage
Prohibition as a permanent alternative to marriage
Shelton and John
They found that women who cohabit do less housework than their married counterparts, showing that cohabitation does not mean the same thing to every couple, and the term covers a diverse range of partnerships.
Partnerships
Same-sex relationships
Stonewall and campaign for LGBT rights
campaigns for LGBT rights estimates that about 5 to 7% of the adult population today have the same sex relationships. It is impossible to judge if this represents an increase because in the past stigma and illegality meant that relationships were hidden.
Partnerships
Same-sex relationships
Evidence of increased social acceptance of the same sexual relationships
Policies
There has been evidence through the male homosexual act in 1967, and recently the age of consents been equalised with a heterosexuals. 2004, the civil partnership act gave same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions and inheritance.
Partnerships
Chosen families
Jeffrey weeks and social acceptance of same-sex cohabitation
Argues that increased social acceptance, explains a trend towards same-sex Cohabitation and stable relationships thats resembles those found among heterosexuals.
Partnerships
Chosen families
Jeffrey weeks and creating families on the idea of friendship as kinship
Weeks sees gays are creating families based on the idea of friendship and kinship with friendships become a type of kinship network. Sees these as chosen families and argues that they offer the same security and stability as heterosexual families.
Partnerships
Chosen families
Cath Weston and “quasi marriage”
She describes, same sex cohabitation as “quasi marriage”, notes that many gay couples are now deciding to cohabit as stable partners, which contrast with the gay lifestyle of the 70s, which rejected monogamy and family life.
What is a quasi marriage?
A category that disassociates itself from the legal concepts of marriage, but has the same effect as marriage.
Partnerships
Chosen families
Graham Allen and Crow Effect on same-sex couples
They argue that’s because of the absence of framework like marriage until recently, same sex partners have had to negotiate their commitment and responsibilities more than married couples, making their relationship more flexible, less stable
Partnerships
Chosen families
Anna Einasdottir
Effect of marriage in same sex couples
While many gay and lesbians welcome the opportunity to have their partnerships legally recognised. others fear that it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of their relationship.
Partnerships
One person households
The rise in one person households
There has been a big rise in 2013 almost 3/10 households contained only one person. 40% of oh, one person household are over 65 and by 2033 30% of adults will be single.
Partnerships
Reasons for the changes of one person households
Increasing separation and divorce
The increase in separation and divorce has created more one person households, especially among men under 65. Following a divorce, children are more likely to live with their mother, and their father is more likely to leave the family.
Partnerships
Reasons for the changes in one person household
Decline in number of marriages
The decline in the numbers marrying and trends towards Marrying later mean more people are remaining single. The proportion of adults who are single have risen by half since 1971. There’s a growing number for opting for “creative single-hood”
What is creative singlehood?
Deliberate choice to live alone. This occurs as people can’t find the suitable partner or are not happy to settle. some live alone, because there are not enough partners available in their age group e.g widows.
Partnerships
“Living apart together”
Simon, Duncan and Miranda Phillips
British social attitude survey, they found that 1/10 adults are living apart together, they’re in a relationship, but not married or cohabiting.This is a half of all people classified as single. Suggests that this may reflect a trend towards less formalised relationships
Living apart together together
Duncan and Phillips and constraint on whether couples live together
They found that some couples don’t live together as they cannot afford to.
Partnerships
Public attitudes towards living apart together
Attitude, a favourable, and a majority believe that a couple do not need to live together to have a strong relationship. 20% see it as their ideal relationship.
Parents and children
What is childbearing?
Process of giving birth to children
Parents and children
Growth of childbearing and registration of birth
Nearly 47% of all children are now born outside marriage over twice as many in 1986 however, nearly all births are jointly registered by both parents.
Parents and children
Childbearing
Women and having babies now and how many
Women are having children later, their average age of birth of their first child raised to 28.1 years. Women are having few children and in 20 century and the average number of children per woman felt to 1.6.
Parents and children
Childbearing
Women not having children now
More women are remaining childless, and it is predicted that a quarter of those born in 1973, will be childless when they reach the age of 45.
Parents and children
Childbearing
Reasons for the changes
Increase in births outside marriage
Reasons for the increase in births outside, marriage, included, declining, stigma, and increase in cohabitation. Only 28% of 25 to 34-year-olds now think marriage should come before parenthood
Parents and children
Reasons for changes of childbearing
Women are having children at a later age
Later Age of woman having children mean there are smaller family sizes A more woman are remaining childless, which reflects the fact that women now have more options than just motherhood.
Parents and children
Loan, parent families
Stats
Lone parent families now make up 22% of all families and over 90% of these are headed by a lone mother. until the 90s, children from loan parent families are twice likely to be in poverty.
Children and parents
Reasons for the patterns of loan, parent families
Divorce and separation
Number of loan parent families has risen due to the increase in divorce and separation, linked to the decline and stigma against single woman.
Reasons for the patterns of loan, parent families
Increase a number of never married woman having children
Due to the increase in number of never married women having children led to a rise in lone parent families, this is linked to the decline in stigma attached to birth marriage.
Reasons for patterns of loan, parent families
Why loan Parent families tend to be female headed
Widespread belief that women play the expressive role. divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers and because the men are less willing than women to give up work to care for children.
Reasons for the patterns of loan, parent families
Single by choice
Many loan parent families are female headed because of mothers are single by choice and they wish to not cohabit or marry, or they may wish to limit the father’s involvement with the child.
Reasons for the patterns of loan, parent families
Single by choice
Jean Renvoize 1985
She found that professional woman were more able to support their child without the fathers involvement over poorer mothers.
Reasons for the patterns of loan, parent families
Single by choice
Ellis Cashmore, working class mothers
some W/C mothers with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner because they had experienced abuse. Feminist ideas, greater opportunities have encouraged an increase in the number of unmarried loan mothers.
Loan parenthood the welfare, state and poverty
New right Charles Murray 1984
The growth of lone parent families
He sees the growth as resulting from an over generous welfare state, providing benefits for unmarried, mothers. creating a preserve incentive which rewards in irresponsible behaviour such as having children without providing for them. Suggests abolishing welfare benefits
Loan parented the welfare, state and poverty
Criticisms of the new rights view
They argue that welfare benefits are far from generous and loan. Parent families are more likely to be in poverty.
Loan parenthood the welfare, state and poverty
Criticism to the new right perspective
Reasons for loan parents families being more likely to be in poverty
Lack of affordable childcare prevents loan parents from working 60% of them are unemployed. In adequate welfare benefits. Most are women who generally earn less than men, as well as the failure of fathers to pay child maintenance.
Parents and children
Step families
Stats
Step families account for over 10% of all families. In 85% of stepfamilies least one child is from the women’s previous relationship. While in 11%. There is at least one child from the man’s previous relationship. Only 4% is there children from both partners.
Parents and children
Step families
Elsa, Ferri and Kate Smith 1998
Found that stepfamilies are very similar to first families in all major respects, and that the involvement of step parents in childcare and child rearing is a positive one, but they found that step families are at a greater risk of poverty.
Parents and children
Step families
Graham Allen and Graham Crow 2001
Step families may face particular problems of divided loyalties and issues such as contract with the non-resident parent (other biological parent of the child) can cause tensions.
Parents and children
Step families
Jane ribbons, McCarthy, 2003
Concludes that there is a diversity among these families, and we should speak of “step families” plural rather than the “step family”. Some have a few tensions, while others that do, the tensions are not so different from those in intact families.
Reasons for the patterns of step families
Formation of step families
Step families are formed when loan parents forms new partnerships. The factor causing an increase in the number of loan parents such as divorce and separation are also responsible for the creation of step families.
Reasons for the patterns of step families
Children coming from the women’s previous relationship
More children and step families are from the women’s previous relationship then the man’s because when marriages inhibitions break up, children are more likely to remain with their mother.
Reasons for the patterns of step families
Greater risk of poverty
Step families are at a greater risk of poverty because they are often more children and because of stepfather may also have to support children from a previous relationship.
Reasons for the patterns of step families
Greater risk of poverty
Step families are at greater risk poverty because there are often more children and because of stepfather metals have to support children from a previous relationship
Reason for the patterns of step families
Tensions
Some tensions faced by step families. Maybe the result of a lack of clear social norms about how individual should behave in such families.
Ethnic differences in family patterns
Black families
Proportion of Loan parent families
Black Caribbean and African people have a higher proportion of loan parent households. in 2012 over half of families with dependent children headed by black person were loan parent families. Compares to only 1/9 Asian households as loan parent.
Ethnic differences in family patterns
Black families
High rate of female headed loan, parent black families
The high rate of female-headed loan parent black families have sometimes been seen as evidence of family disorganisation that has been traced back to slavery or high rate of unemployment among black males.
Ethnic differences in family patterns
Black families
Slavery and family patterns
Under slavery couples were sold separately, children stayed with their mother. this established patterns of family that persists today and argues that male unemployment and poverty meant that black men are less able to provide for the family resulting in higher rates of desertion
Ethnic differences and family patterns
Black families
Heidi safia Mirza and the cause of high rate of loan parent families
Argues that the higher rate of loan, parent families among blacks is not the result of disorganisation, but reflects the high valley that black women in place on independence.
Ethnic differences and a family patterns
Black families
Tracy Reynolds, 2010 and lone parent families
She argues that the statistics are misleading in that many apparently “loan” parents are in fact, in stable, supportive and non-cohabiting relationships.
Ethnic differences and family patterns
Asian families
Family sizes
Pakistani and Indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups. Such households contain 3 generations and they’re partly a result of the younger age profile of British Asians, since a high proportion are in the childbearing age groups.
Ethnic differences and family patterns
Asian families
Larger households reflection of cultures
Larger Asian households also reflect the value placed on extended family in Asian cultures. However, practical considerations such as the need for assistance when migrating to Britain are also important.
Ethnic differences and family patterns
Asian families
Roger Ballard 1982, families as a source of support
Found the extended family ties, provided an important source of support among Asian migrants during the 50s and 60s. in this period of migration houses were often shared by extended families. frequent visiting and kinship networks used as a source of support.
The extended family today
Nikkie Charles 2008 and the three generation family now
In the study of Swansea, Charles found the classic three generation family will live together under one roof is now extinct, and the only exceptions were among the cities Bangladesh community
The extended family today
Peter Wilmot and the extended family not disappeared
that extended families continue to exist as a “dispersed extended family” where relatives are geographically, separated, but maintain frequent contact through visits and phone calls
The extended family today
Mary Chamberlain, extended families and Caribbean families
She found in Britain that, despite being geographically disbursed, they continue to provide support and describes them as multiple nuclear families with close frequent contact. The extended family survives as it performs important functions for its members.
The extended family today
Colin Bell
working class and middle-class families and providing support
Among the middle-class, there are more financial help from father to son. In working class families, there is more frequent contact and there’s more domestic help from mothers to daughters.
Extended family today
The beanpole family
Colin Bell and Julia Brennan
Bell suggests the importance of the beanpole family, a type of extended family, Julia Brennan describes as long and thin. Its extended vertically by three generations or more, but not extended horizontally through the involvement of aunties and uncles.
Extended family today
The beanpole family
Demographic changes that led to being pole families
Increased life expectancy means more surviving grandparents and great grandparents.
Small family sizes mean people have fewer siblings and fewer horizontal ties.
The extended family today
Obligations to relatives
Janet, Finch and Jennifer Mason, and obligation to help wider extended families
They found that over 90% of people had given or received financial help and about half had cared for a sick relative. However, they found that is expected more from females than males.
The extended family today
Obligations to relatives
Cheal and the help of household tasks
Argues that help should be given by the spouse, and then daughter, and then daughter-in-law, finally by the Son. When care for an elderly woman is needed, the daughter or daughter-in-law, is preferred if the husband isn’t available.
Extended families today
Obligations to relatives
Daughters playing unequally in the family.
while daughters are more likely than sons to take responsibility for the care of elderly relatives, not all the daughters in the family play equal part.
The extended family today
Obligations to relatives
Mason
Obligations women feel towards relatives
Whether women feel responsibility of the care of elderly relatives depends on the history of the relationship and the obligations they feel towards their relatives, also responsibilities they have that would prevent them from getting involved.
The extended family today
The extended family playing an important role for many people today
They provide practical and emotional support when called upon. However, it’s very different from Parsons classic extended family whose members lived and work together. However, some sense of obligation remains, especially in times of crisis.
Extended families today
The important role that extended families have for people today
They provide practical and emotional support when called upon, but it’s different from Parsons. Classic extended family who’s members lived and work together, but there is a sense of obligation, especially at times in crisis.
