Changing cities Flashcards
What are the 2 reasons why cities grow so rapidly?
Natural increase
(or decrease) - this is the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths.
Migration - this is the movement of people into or out of the city.
What is a conurbation?
A conurbation is a region comprising a number of metropolises, cities, large towns, and other urban areas which, through population growth and physical expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban or industrially developed area.
What is rural to urban migration?
The movement of people from the countryside to the city.
What are push and pull factors and give examples
Push factors are things that make people want to leave rural areas and pull factors are the things that attract people to a city.
Push factors:
unemployment
lower wages
crop failure
poor living conditions
poor health and education services
few facilities
natural disasters
civil war
Pull factors:
more jobs
higher wages
better living conditions
better education and health services
better facilities
less chance of natural disasters
What is the difference between top down and bottom up approaches?
Bottom-up aid is organised by communities with the aim of benefitting the local area. Top-down aid is on a much larger scale and is organised by governments and other large institutions.
What is an informal economy?
An informal economy (informal sector or grey economy) is the part of any economy that is neither taxed nor monitored by any form of government. Although the informal sector makes up a significant portion of the economies in developing countries, it is sometimes stigmatized as troublesome and unmanageable.
What are Top down strategies?
Top down development is where decisions about development are made by Governments or private companies. These tend to be big schemes and decisions are made by the national government. Local people who often live near the scheme do not get involved in the process.
What are bottom up strategies?
these are usually small-scale development projects aimed at the poorest communities through the actions of non-government organisations (NGOs). They are usually less expensive due to their smaller sale.
What are the main physical factors affecting degrees of urbanisation in the UK?
Relief & Topography
Water Supply
Soil Fertility .
Natural Resources
Coastal Location
What are the main historical factors affecting degrees of urbanisation in the UK?
Industrial Revolution (18th–19th centuries) – Rapid growth of industrial cities due to factories, mining, and trade.
Port Development – Historic trade hubs expanded due to colonialism and global commerce.
Railways & Transport – 19th-century rail networks boosted connectivity, enabling city growth.
Medieval Market Towns – Many towns originated as trading centres and later urbanised.
What is urbanisation
Definition:
The growth of cities due to rural-urban migration, natural population increase, and economic development, leading to higher population density and urban expansion.
What is Suburbanisation
Definition:
The movement of people, businesses, and services from inner-city areas to the outer edges (suburbs), often due to cheaper land, better housing, and improved transport links.
What is Gentrification?
When wealthier individuals move into a poorer urban area, renovating properties and changing the area’s character, often displacing original residents.
What is Studentification?
The concentration of students in certain urban areas due to universities, leading to changes in housing demand, local businesses, and community dynamics.
What is counter-urbanisation?
The movement of people and economic activities from major cities to smaller towns, rural areas, or the urban fringe, often driven by the desire for a better quality of life, cheaper housing, and improved transport.
What is Re-Urbanisation?
The movement of people and investment back into urban city centres, often after a period of decline, driven by regeneration projects, economic opportunities, and changing lifestyles.
What is the role of migration in UK urbanisation?
Migration drives population growth, economic activity, and cultural diversity in UK cities, shaping urban expansion and demographic change. Migrants increase urban population density and create ethnic enclaves. Migrants fill labour shortages (e.g., NHS, construction) and boost entrepreneurship (e.g., migrant-owned businesses in food, retail). It creates multicultural hubs with diverse food, festivals , and global connections.
What challenges arise from migration in UK cities?
Pressure on housing (rising rents), strained public services (schools, healthcare), and occasional social tensions.
How does globalisation relate to deindustrialisation?
Enabled offshoring of manufacturing to lower-cost countries, accelerating deindustrialisation.
What is decentralisation?
The dispersal of economic activity/population from urban cores to Suburbs or Smaller towns.
How is decentralisation connected to deindustrialisation?
Jobs move out: Factories relocate abroad (deindustrialisation) → jobs decentralise globally.
Urban decline: Industrial job losses → people move away (counter-urbanisation).
Service economy rise: New service jobs cluster in cities (e.g., London finance), but manufacturing decentralises.
How do technological advances link with deindustrialisation?
Technological advances drive deindustrialisation by enabling automation that replaces human workers, increasing productivity which reduces labour demand, and facilitating global competition through advanced communication technologies. These changes create skill mismatches as traditional industrial jobs decline while technical roles grow elsewhere.
How does transport development link with deindustrialisation?
Improved transport (container shipping, air freight, and motorways) accelerated deindustrialisation by:
Enabling global supply chains, allowing factories to relocate overseas
Reducing costs of imports, undercutting local manufacturers
Process of building infrastructure may cause factories, plants and businesses to be demolished.
What is industrialisation?
Industrialisation is the transition from an agrarian-based economy to one dominated by manufacturing and mechanised production.
What is the CBD (Central Business District)?
The CBD is the commercial and economic core of a city
What are the three main parts of an urban area?
CBD (Central Business District)
Inner City
Suburbs
Describe the CBD.
Economic heart (banks, offices, shops)
High land values, tall buildings
Transport hub (busy roads, public transit)
Describe the Inner City.
Mixed land use: Old industries, terraced housing, some regeneration
Higher density, older buildings
Describe the Suburbs.
Residential focus (detached/semi-detached homes)
Lower density, greener spaces
Wealthier (but varies)
What is inequality?
Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, or privileges among individuals or groups within a society. It can be:
Economic (wealth/income gaps)
Social (access to education/healthcare)
Spatial (differences between areas/regions)
Why does inequality exist in UK cities?
Economic shifts – Deindustrialisation eliminated manufacturing jobs, while service-sector jobs (finance/tech) cluster in wealthy areas (e.g., London).
Housing market – Gentrification and rising prices displace low-income groups to deprived areas.
Policy decisions – Historic underinvestment in northern cities (e.g., Liverpool) vs. focus on London.
Education/skills gaps – Poorer areas often have underfunded schools, limiting opportunities.
What is the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD)?
The IMD is the UK government’s official measure of relative deprivation, ranking neighborhoods by:
Income (e.g., welfare dependency)
Employment (unemployment rates)
Education/skills (school attainment)
Health (life expectancy, disability)
Crime (violence, theft rates)
Housing/services (overcrowding, access to amenities)
Environment (pollution, green space)
How do shopping centres affect Central Business Districts (CBDs)?
Positive Impacts:
Economic Growth – Large shopping centres (e.g., Westfield London) attract investment and high-end retailers, boosting CBD revenue.
Modernization – Revitalizes declining CBD areas with mixed-use developments (e.g., leisure + retail).
Tourism – Flagship stores and entertainment draw visitors (e.g., Bullring, Birmingham).
Negative Impacts:
Out-of-Town Competition – Suburban malls (e.g., Trafford Centre) drain CBD footfall and sales.
Small Business Decline – Independent shops struggle with rising rents/comparison.
Traffic/Congestion – Increased delivery vehicles and visitors strain CBD infrastructure.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of out-of-town shopping centres?
Pros:
Convenience – Easy car access, free parking, and large retail spaces (e.g., IKEA, Trafford Centre).
Lower Costs – Cheaper land than CBDs, leading to lower prices for consumers.
Variety & Leisure – Mix of retail, entertainment (cinemas, restaurants), and hypermarkets under one roof.
Reduced CBD Congestion – Diverts traffic from crowded city centres.
Cons:
CBD Decline – Drains businesses and footfall from city centres, leading to vacant shops.
Increased Car Dependency – Poor public transport links worsen traffic and pollution.
Urban Sprawl – Expands cities unsustainably, consuming greenfield sites.
Social Inequality – Low-income groups without cars face access barriers.
How can urban living be made more sustainable to improve inequality and quality of life in the UK?
- Affordable & Eco-Friendly Housing
Invest in energy-efficient social housing to reduce fuel poverty.
Promote mixed-income neighbourhoods to prevent spatial segregation.
- Green Transport Policies
Expand reliable public transit to connect deprived areas to jobs/services.
Implement low-emission zones and cycling infrastructure to cut pollution (which disproportionately harms poorer residents).
- Equitable Access to Services
Locate schools, healthcare, and green spaces in underserved areas.
Use urban planning to ensure amenities are walkable for all income groups.
- Sustainable Job Creation
Fund green industries (renewables, retrofitting) to provide stable, local employment.
Prioritize skills training in deprived communities for fair access to new economy jobs.
- Community-Led Regeneration
Involve residents in decisions to avoid gentrification-driven displacement.
Support urban farming and cooperatives to improve food security.
What is the difference between site and situation in urban geography?
Site refers to the physical characteristics of the location where a city is built.
Situation describes the city’s relative location and connections
What are the impacts of rapid development in emerging/developing countries?
Economic Impacts
Positive: Job creation, foreign investment (e.g., manufacturing zones), GDP growth.
Negative: Exploitation of workers, dependency on volatile global markets, widening wealth gaps.
Social Impacts
Positive: Improved infrastructure (schools, hospitals), rural-urban migration for opportunities.
Negative: Overcrowding, slum growth (e.g., favelas), strain on services, cultural erosion.
Environmental Impacts
Positive: Investment in green tech (e.g., solar energy in India).
Negative: Air/water pollution, deforestation, loss of farmland to urban sprawl.
What are shanty towns?
Shanty towns (or informal settlements) are densely populated, makeshift housing areas built from scrap materials (e.g., corrugated metal, plywood), often lacking basic services like clean water, sewage, or electricity.
What retail changes caused UK CBDs to decline?
E-commerce growth - Online shopping (e.g., Amazon) reduced footfall in physical stores.
Out-of-town retail parks - Cheaper rents, free parking (e.g., Trafford Centre) drew shoppers away.
Chain store closures - High CBD rents/business rates led to bankruptcies (e.g., Debenhams).
How can urban living be made more sustainable to reduce inequality and improve quality of life in emerging/developing countries?
- Affordable & Climate-Resilient Housing
Upgrade slums with basic services (clean water, sanitation) while avoiding displacement.
Use local materials and green designs (e.g., passive cooling) to cut costs/emissions.
- Equitable Public Transport
Expand low-cost transit (bus rapid transit, bike lanes) to connect informal settlements to jobs.
Prioritize walkable cities to reduce reliance on cars (unaffordable for the poor).
- Inclusive Urban Planning
Involve residents in decisions (e.g., community land trusts) to prevent elite capture.
Zone mixed-use areas to keep jobs/homes/services close, reducing inequality.
- Green Job Creation
Invest in waste recycling, renewable energy, and urban farming to employ low-skilled workers.
Train workers for sustainable industries (e.g., solar panel installation).
- Pollution & Climate Action
Reduce industrial toxins in poor areas.
Plant urban forests to improve air quality
What does quality of life mean?
Quality of life refers to the overall well-being of individuals or communities, measured by a combination of material and non-material factors, including:
Basic Needs – Access to food, clean water, shelter, and healthcare.
Economic Conditions – Income stability, employment opportunities, and cost of living.
Health & Education – Life expectancy, disease prevention, and access to schooling.
Safety & Security – Low crime rates, political stability, and disaster resilience.
Environment – Clean air, green spaces, and sustainable infrastructure.
Social & Cultural – Community cohesion, leisure activities, and freedom of expression.
What are the main reasons for migration to UK cities?
Economic Opportunities - Cities offer more/better-paying jobs, especially in finance (London), tech (Manchester), and healthcare
Education - World-class universities (e.g., Oxford, Cambridge, London unis) attract international students
Existing Diaspora Communities - Migrants join established communities (e.g., South Asian populations in Birmingham)
Services & Infrastructure - Better healthcare, transport, and amenities than rural areas
Global Connections - Major airports and business hubs facilitate international migration
Asylum & Safety - Cities provide support networks for refugees (e.g., Syrian communities in Glasgow)
What are the social, economic, and environmental impacts of rapid urban population growth in developing countries?
Social Impacts:
Overcrowding: Strain on housing → growth of slums/informal settlements (e.g., Kibera, Nairobi).
Service Shortages: Schools and hospitals become overcrowded; water scarcity and poor sanitation spread disease.
Rising Inequality: Wealth gaps widen as elites access better services while poor face worsening conditions.
Economic Impacts:
Job Demand Outstrips Supply: Informal sector grows (e.g., street vending), with unstable incomes.
Infrastructure Pressure: Roads/public transport become overwhelmed (e.g., traffic gridlock in Lagos).
Youth Unemployment: Rapid urban youth populations face high joblessness, risking social unrest.
Environmental Impacts:
Pollution: Air quality declines (e.g., Delhi’s smog); rivers become toxic dumps (e.g., Citarum River, Indonesia).
Urban Sprawl: Farmland/natural habitats destroyed for housing (e.g., Mumbai’s mangrove loss).
Climate Vulnerability: Flood risks rise as cities expand onto floodplains (e.g., Dhaka, Bangladesh).
Why are urban areas in developing countries experiencing rapid population growth?
- Rural-Urban Migration (Main Driver)
Push Factors: Poverty, lack of jobs, drought, or conflict in rural areas.
Pull Factors: Better wages, education, healthcare, and “bright lights” appeal of cities. - Natural Increase
High birth rates in cities due to:
Younger migrant populations → more children.
Limited family planning access. - Economic Centralization
Investment/jobs concentrate in cities (e.g., factories, government jobs), drawing people in. - Refugee Displacement
Conflict/climate disasters force people into urban areas (e.g., Syrians in Beirut).
What are push and pull factors in migration?
Push Factors (Reasons people leave an area):
Economic – Poverty, unemployment, low wages.
Environmental – Drought, floods, natural disasters.
Political – War, persecution, lack of rights.
Social – Poor healthcare, education, or crime.
Pull Factors (Reasons people move to an area):
Economic – Jobs, higher wages, investment.
Services – Better schools, hospitals, infrastructure.
Stability – Safety, political freedom, rule of law.
Quality of Life – Clean environment, amenities.
