Change and Continuity - Role of the People Flashcards
Changes in weaponry - The Carronade
The carronade is a short smoothbore, cast iron cannon, which was used by the Royal Navy from the 1770s to the 1850s. Its main function was to serve as a powerful, short-range anti-ship and anti-crew weapon.
During the Battle of Trafalgar 1805, the two 68 pounder carronades on HMS Victory were fired through the stern windows of the French battleship Bucentaure with such force that they cleared the top gun deck.
Decline of the carronade - After 1815, naval tactics began to change. As long-barrelled guns became more accurate and quicker at firing it became better for the British to conduct naval engagements at a distance where their superior gunnery would give them the upper hand. Carronades were phased out by 1851.
Changes in weaponry - Congreve’s rockets
-1806
-Both the army and the navy adopted the rocket from 1806 and used it in small numbers against Napoleonic France
-First successful use of rockets was in the Royal Navy attack on Boulogne in October 1806 when 24 small ships fired 2,000 rockets at the city. Although psychological damage was large, the physical damage was not
-The Royal Navy then used a mixed barrage of rockets and conventional weapons to bombard Copenhagen in 1807, having a far larger effect than rockets alone
-The rocket brigadewas formed and saw action with the European allies at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, and in Wellington’s army in the invasion of southern France at Toulouse - The fact that the army did not expand the use of rockets over traditional weapons suggests that rockets had limited success in battle
-Although Congreve rockets were used after 1815, the problems with their inaccuracy were never solved, limiting the military use
Changes in weaponry - William Armstrong’s New Artillery
-1859-60
-Rather than the slow and dangerous muzzle loaded cannon, Breach loaded cannons were simpler to load and used a self-contained cartridge
-After use in the 1861 New Zealand Wars it was found that guns required more maintenance, a higher trained crew, and more expense ammunition so Army reverted to using the simple and cheaper muzzle loaded cannons
-However, Breach loaded cannons became the norm in the 1880s with the British once again using 12-pounder breach artillery, including during the Boer Wars
-Huge impact in beginning the development of warships from having broadsides to having rotating turrets with heavier and heavier guns
Changes in weaponry - Vickers Machine Gun
-1912
Was only an improvement on the 1884 Maxim Gun which was fairly large and needed a crew to move it and set it up, but could be fired by a single man
However, Vickers gun was lighter and more reliable, it parts were easier to mass produce and the standard version used the same .303-inch ammunition as the infantry rifle. Like the Maxim, the Vickers needed a crew to operate it but the gun and its tripod were far easier to move
Influence major tactical developments, At the start of WW1 machine guns were shared out to each infantry battalion and cavalry regiment but by 1915, tactical thinking had changed and Heavy machine guns like the Vickers gun were re-formed into the Machine Gun Corps and then larger machine gun unit were assigned to divisions, eventually each division has its own machine gun battalion
Also meat that fewer men were needed to hold an area as a single machine gun could deliver the same volume of fire as 40 to 50 riflemen
Changes in weaponry - Development of the tank
-1915-18
-First prototype British tank in ‘Little Willie’ was developed in the Summer of 1915, which showed the benefit of tracks for moving over rough terrain
-The tank made its combat in September 1916 during the Somme offensive - Mechanical problems meant that only 24 of the original 50 tanks actually made it to the start line for the attack, of these several more broke down short of the enemy lines and were destroyed by artillery fire
-The Mark IV and Mark V tanks that were used in 1917 and 1918 were upgraded versions of the Mark I, having better engine and heavier armour
-Most successful tank action of WW1 was at the Battle of Cambrai (November 1917), where over 400 tanks supported the infantry and followed a creeping barrage, the tanks were effective in clearing barbed wire and then supported the infantry with fire
-Only useful to augment the success of infantry assaults, not until WW2 where the power of tank maneuver would be seen
The Home Front - The Napoleonic Wars
-The threat of a French invasion led to the formation of militia units ‘fencibles’ throughout Britain. Though part time and not eligible for foreign service, the militia units performed useful duties throughout the war and served as a base from which to recruit regulars.
-Seriousness of the threat of French invasion shown By 1803, 380,000 men were serving in the reserves.
-However, after the achievement of British naval superiority with the destruction of the Franco-Spanish Fleet in 1805, this threat was removed
-Infantry militia units were raised by counties. Militia units were generally used for garrison duty and Their main role was to act against civil unrest. - The government responded to protests in Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire in 1811 by sending troops in to keep the peace
The Home Front - the 19th Century (Crimea and Boer Wars)
-Most militia units were disbanded after 1815, but some remained in a police role. Infamously one of these units was involved in the ‘Peterloo Massacre’ of 1819 which saw 11 deaths. Many began to question the need for these militia groups after the creation of a civilian police force in 1829.
-The Militia Act of 1852 however, gave reservists a real place. The Act provided for a militia force of 80,000 men to be enlisted voluntarily or by ballot. As such the militia now started to form part of a recognised Home Front defence for, even during peacetime.
-Alongside this, the volunteer movement grew from the 1860s onwards. It became popular due to it being seen as patriotic and enjoyable. Volunteer units were freed from the discipline of the militia and the army leaders began to see them increasing as a corps of irregular troops whose skills with a rifle would provide a useful skirmish line for the professionals.
-Both Cardwell and Childers reforms drew the reservists closer to the army, until Haldane made them an integral part of defence policy.
The Home Front - the First World War
-In August 1914 the Defence of the Realm Act was passed. This gave the government unprecedented powers to influence almost every aspect of everyday life in Britain.
-E.g. it now became an offense to fly a kite, light a bonfire or buy binoculars. Any talk about military affairs in public was prohibited, as was trespassing on the railways.
-In order to reduce absenteeism due to drunkenness, pub opening times were restricted and landlords were told to water the beer down. Drinkers were also not permitted to buy beer rounds.
-British Summer Time was also introduced to provide more daylight for agricultural work in the evening.
The Home Front - Controlling the Economy
-Rumour of a shell shortage caused outrage in Britain in the early months of 1915. This led to the Munitions of War Act of 1915 which resulted in direct government control of the munitions industry with strict rules about what workers could and couldn’t do. Trade unions agreed to abide by the Act for the remainder of the war.
-Strikes were prohibited and workers couldn’t leave the munitions industry without written consent of their employer. No worker could refused a new job, no matter the rate of pay, nor could a worker refuse to do overtime, even if it was unpaid.
-In return, wages were to be protected and pay rises could be offered, but only with governmental approval.
-Coal industries had their profits set at 1913 levels, with any surplus going to the Treasury. Coal mines remained in private hands but in February 1917 it was suggested that coal mines that did not conform to government guidelines would be nationalised.
-Transport remained in private hands but was under intense government guidelines. Although by 1918, most merchant ships had been requisitioned by the ministry of shipping in order to keep the country supplied.
The Home Front - Controlling the Workforce
-Due to the large movement of young men into the armed forces, by 1915, recruiting sergeants were instructed to not recruit men from reserved occupations. These included- miners, shipbuilders, farmers, mcerchant seamen, drivers and workers in the munitions industry. However, as the war went on more and more of the reserved occupations saw their men being called up as well.
-Women working in munitions increased from 80,000 in July 1914 to 950,000 by November 1918
-Over 200,000 women became civil servants during the war and 500,000 others did clerical work for private firms
-The transport industry took on women: 120,000 by the end of the war.
The Home Front - Food and Drink
-In 1914, 60% of Britain’s food was imported.
-Due to U-boat attacks the availability of food dropped leading to many queues and shortages at shops by the end of 1916.
To fix this the government:
-Undertook a massive shipbuilding programme to replace the losses in the merchant fleet.
-Setting up a food agency and rationing.
-Livestock farmers were encouraged to turn to food crops (e.g. wheat, barley, potatoes)- the government kept the prices of these artificially high to promote this change.
-The Board of Agriculture took over every farm to ensure it was using its land effectively.
-Compulsory rationing was introduced in January 1918, after an initial Voluntary Rationing system. This led to an overall calorie drop per person of 3%, but was no where near as low as other European countries.
The Home Front - Censorship and Propaganda
-Only in 1916 were correspondents allowed to visit the Front. Even then, they were given carefully written statements by the Army Press Bureau.
-In 1916, 40,000 articles, 25,000 photographs and 300,000 private telegrams were examined by government censors.
-Some newspapers that tried to give a balanced or anti-war perspective could be shut down, as the Tribunal was due to its support of Conscientious Objectors.
-50 million government posters produced
-The propaganda film the Battle of the Somme was made by independent filmmakers but sold to the government. By October 1916, it had been shown in over 2,000 cinemas.
-German actions through naval bombardment or Zeppelin bombing raids, as well as other atrocities on the continent further helped the government’s propaganda campaign.
Role of the People - Providing Finance
Napoleonic Wars:
-In 1797, Pitt persuaded Parliament to impose an income tax for the first time in history which raised £155 million from 1797-1815
-Due to close relations between the British government, the Bank of England, and the City of London merchants meant credit was readily available in London’s powerful capital markets
Crimean War:
-Chancellor Gladstone raised taxes - Income tax rates were doubled, stamp duty increases and duties on spirits, sugar and malt
-When Cornewall became Chancellor in 1855 he believed that heavy taxation was more damaging to the economy that borrowing, so simply borrowed money instead to the point of it facilitating half the war’s cost
WW1:
-War bonds had been introduced by the government where by ordinary British citizens could buy bonds, which would then be paid back- with interest- by the government after the war. Initially interest rates on government bonds was 5%, later 3.5%. This meant that after the war, the government also owed money to its own people. It also displays the first time that the average citizen was encouraged to help finance a war for Britain.
-Another way of increasing the government income was through taxation. All three chancellors, Lloyd George (1914-15), McKenna (1915-16) and Bonar Law (1916-19), put up the rate of income tax- going from 3.75% in 1914 to 30% in 1918.
-In 1914, 1.5 million people had been paying income tax but by 1918 7.7 million people were. This was because the exemption level was reduced from £160 to £130 per annum.
Role of the People - Saving resources through Food rationing
Napoleonic Wars:
-Wages stagnated between 1796 and 1814
-The poor were hit were rising food prices
-Speenhamland System used in linking the size of families to the price of bread in order to determine parish relief
Crimean and Boer Wars:
-No rationing due to these wars more minor scale
-The smaller scale of these wars meant that widespread economic mobilisation wasn’t needed, so to that end, the saving of resources through rationing was not required
-The potential threat of food shortages did not exist in these wars as the enemy had no real way of cutting off Britains overseas food supply
WW1:
-Due to U-boat attacks the availability of food dropped leading to many queues and shortages at shops by the end of 1916
-Compulsory rationing was introduced in January 1918, after an initial Voluntary Rationing system. This led to an overall calorie drop per person of 3%, but was no where near as low as other European countries.
Role of the People - Being camp followers
Women and Children:
-During the Peninsular War (1807-14) only six wives were allowed per company for the lower ranks. Officers could only marry with the permission of their commanding officer, but there were no restrictions on officers’ wives accompanying their husbands.
-In additional to the official women, there were often a good number of unofficial camp followers. These were often wives from home who had not been selected among the official spouses, but who went anyway. Often, these women, and their children, would have to make their own way on the campaign and would not receive rations
-Many women preferred to accompany their men on campaign as the alternative for many was going into the workhouse to receive basic food and shelter for doing labour
Ancilliary Services:
-In the Crimean War the nursing would be done by the camp followers. Despite the problems highlighted by the Crimean War, full scale professionalism did not take place until after the 19th and early 20th centuries. The most famous self-organised female practitioner was Florence Nightingale
-Cooking was often undertaken by the camp followers, whose expertise in cooking might make the rations more bearable for the men they were cooking for. e.g. Mary Seacole
Businesses:
-Private enterprises ranging from prostitution and selling alcohol to gunsmiths, cobblers and cutlers would follow the army in the hope of making money.
-Groups of prostitutes would follow armies and provide prostitution to soldiers with spare time, money, and prospect of death, were in such heavy use that it is estimated that by the 1850s as many as one in five servicemen had succumbed to a venereal disease
