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chall & change exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is psychology?

A

The study of how thoughts and brain function influences a person/animal on an individual level

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2
Q

What is Sociology?

A

The examination of development and structures of human society (institutions) and how they work.

Examines social life, social change, social causes and consequences of human behaviour.

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3
Q

What is Anthropology

A

Studies human origins (evolution) and the development of culture, customs and rituals

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4
Q

Format of positivist questions

A

Descriptive, cause and effect, quantitative data that can be measured

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5
Q

Format of interpretive questions

A

How and why focused, Explanatory and experimental

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6
Q

Critical Questions

A

Questions intend to make society better, finds flaws to address, could also be positivist/interpretive

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7
Q

Quantitative research

A

collects data from a distance, objective conclusions rather than direct ones, surveys & observational experiments, yes or no questions,

gathers data in a numerical form which can be put into categories, rank order, or measured. can be used to construct graphs and tables of data. Aims to establish general laws of behaviour and phenomenon across different contexts. Research is used to test a theory and support or reject it.

Methods: Experiments- concerned with measuring things. Controlled settings. Questionnaires (with a rating scale for answers)

Limitations: Doesn’t allow participants to explain their choices. Researcher might not have statistical expertise- may negatively affect analysis of data and interpretation. Confirmation bias: the researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing

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8
Q

Qualitative research

A

Asks questions directly, follows up with the subjects, unstructured data; open ended questions, summaries, subjective conclusions, interviews/focus groups/direct observation/interaction.

explains how and why a particular phenomenon or behaviour happens. those who are studied speak for themselves and provide their perspectives

  • Data is not in the form of numbers
  • Understand the social reality of individuals/groups/cultures.
  • People and groups are studied in their natural setting

There’s no single reality, it’s subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.

  • data driven, evolving from the data as it is collected. Each response is specific to the subject

Methods: Diary accounts, open ended questions, documents, artifacts, participant observation

Limitations: time and costs, a large number of people aren’t studied. takes a lot of time to collect, analyze and interpret data.

Subjective nature: Large role played by researchers makes it hard to duplicate the study. Contexts, situations, events, conditions and interactions can’t be replicated

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9
Q

Questionnaire

A

a written set of questions to be answered by a research participant

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10
Q

Observations

A

The researcher immerses themselves in the study of a group. This gives the researcher first hand information on the operation and traditions of the group

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11
Q

Survey

A

Distributed to people who best represent the group being studied. should be straight forward and objective

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12
Q

Primary sources

A

a source/account that comes from someone with a first hand experience or an artifact/diary entry directly from the event

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13
Q

Secondary Source

A

the summary, collation or synthesis of existing research. uses primary research as a source of data for analysis. (newspaper article/essay summarizing what others say about the event)

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14
Q

Hypothesis

A

an assumption made based off of known facts used as the basis for investigation

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15
Q

what is an Inquiry model

A

Steps followed to conduct research and attempt to prove a hypothesis

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16
Q

Inquiry model steps

A
  • Develop a question
  • Explore alternative perspectives
  • Form a hypothesis
  • Data collection
  • Asses the hypothesis
  • Arrive at a conclusion
  • Evaluate research
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17
Q

Research question

A

A question that provides research data

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18
Q

Ethnocentrism

A

Belief in the superiority of one’s nation or ethnic group.

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19
Q

Variables

A

Something that can take different values throughout individuals and time

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20
Q

Anthropological sources of change (two)

A

Invention and Discovery

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21
Q

Invention as a source of change

A

New products, ideas and social patterns

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22
Q

Discovery as a source of cultural change

A

Discovering something that was previously unknown to a culture

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23
Q

Anthropological theories of change (two)

A

Acculturation and Diffusion

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24
Q

Acculturation as a theory of change

A

The process of contact, exposure and exchange of ideas between different cultures that results in adaptations and changes to both groups

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25
Q

Diffusion as a theory of change

A

the spread of a cultural trait from one society to another through social contact. When different cultural groups come into contact with each other traits of one group will spread to another

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26
Q

Cultural Materialism as a school of thought

remember the 3 structures

A

The physical materials, conditions and economic activity of an environment determine how the ideas and ideologies of a culture develop. Change occurs within a framework of three levels. Infrastructure, Structure and Superstructure

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26
Q

Anthropological schools of thought (two)

A

Cultural Materialism and Functionalism

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27
Q

Three levels of Cultural Materialism

A

Top to bottom

Superstructure: The ideology of a culture, it’s beliefs and values

Structure: How the culture is organized, such as political systems, laws, families and other institutions

Infrastructure: the technological, economic and demographic factors of a culture. How people attend to basic needs of survival. Influences the other two levels. Changes to economy will change the organization and ideology of a culture

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28
Q

What is psychoanalysis?

A

Sigmund Freud

1856 - 1939

Focus on an individuals thoughts, emotions and behaviors. Looks at both the conscious and unconscious mind. Theorizes that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence behaviour.

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28
Q

What is social learning

A

Albert Bandura

1977

Considers how environmental and cognitive factors influence learning and behaviour. Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning

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29
Q

Behaviorism

A

John B. Watson

1910s-1950s

By understanding human behavior, psychologists can both predict and control it, subsequently preventing harmful behavior.

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30
Q

Cognitive Theories

A

Jean Piaget

1930s

Focus on internal thought and how it influences our actions. Attempts to explain human behavior by understanding someone’s thought process.

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31
Q

What is Humanism

A

Abraham Maslow

1908 - 1970

Focus on free will, self efficiency and self actualization. The theory that the need for fulfillment and personal growth are key motivators.

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32
Q

Developmental psychology (not who it is just what it is)

A

Characterized by its focus on human growth and changes throughout their lifespan, aiming to explain behaviour shifts throughout their lifespan

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33
Q

health psychology

A

How biological, social and psychological factors influence health. Studies how patients handle illnesses and why some people don’t follow medical advice.

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34
Q

Forensic Psychology

A

Psychological assessment of those in the justice system. Assesses competence for trials, researches crime prevention and rehabilitative options

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35
Q

Experimental Psychology

A

Focuses on conducting systematic and controlled experiments to study human behaviour. Explores cause and effect relationships between variables.

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36
Q

Skinner Branch

A

Behaviourism

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37
Q

Skinner concepts

not behaviorism

A

Operant conditioning:

Focuses on researching the affects that occur when one is exposed to a specific stimulant.

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38
Q

Adler branch

A

Individualistic Psychology

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39
Q

Adler concept

A

Founder of Individual (Adlerian) psychology. Focused on individual health

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40
Q

Piaget branch

A

Cognitive/Developmental theory

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41
Q

Piaget concept

A

Developmental psychology: Researched child cognitive development. Theorized that to make sense of the world, children create mental ideas to form their life experiences

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42
Q

Freud Branch

A

Psychoanalysis

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43
Q

Freud concept

A

Id, Ego and Super Ego.

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44
Q

Erikson branch

A

Developmental psychology

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45
Q

Erikson concept

and main creation (tower)

A

Epigenetic principal: Everyone goes through 8 different stages from birth to death (his triangle tower thing)

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46
Q

Pavlov branch

A

Behaviourism/Classical conditioning

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47
Q

Pavlov concept

A

Found that specific triggers or stimulants (I.e. bell) would trigger a certain reaction (i.e. drooling)

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48
Q

Ainsworth branch

A

Developmental

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49
Q

Ainsworth concept

A

Focused on children’s relationship with their caregiver. Concluded three main attachment styles; secure, anxious and anxious-resistant attachment.

50
Q

Defense Mechanisms (6)

A

Denial, Repression, Projection, Displacement,

Regression, Sublimation

51
Q

Denial traits

A

Refusal to accept reality. If a situation is overwhelming, someone may respond by refusing to perceive it.

A primitive and dangerous defense- comes from the Id

52
Q

Repression traits

A

The Ego pushes back disturbing or threatening thoughts. The thoughts are then forgotten and the person is unable to recall the situation, person or event. Says the Ego represses the thoughts to avoid guilt from the Superego

53
Q

Projection traits

A

An individual pushes unwanted thoughts, feelings and motives onto another person. Pushing your own unacceptable thoughts onto another person makes you feel like they’re no longer your thoughts.

54
Q

Displacement traits

A

Redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute target (person or object). Occurs when the Id wants to do something the Superego doesn’t permit. i.e. being frustrated with your boss and taking it out on family members

55
Q

Regression traits

A

The ego reverts to an earlier stage of development in response to a stressful situation. A person psychologically goes back to a time where the person felt safer.

56
Q

Sublimation

A

Similar to displacement, but the person is able to displace unacceptable emotions into healthy behaviours, rather than unhealthy ones (displacement). i.e. Someone working out after work to relieve stress rather than going home to be abusive/aggressive to their family.

57
Q

What is macro sociology?

A

larger scale -

Studies a social shift

Sets new beliefs and values that become strong enough to affect how individuals see and perceive society.

58
Q

The four factors of social change

not enviornmental, political etc.

A
  1. Decay - decline or degeneration

2.Cycles of Growth

3.Progress/Innovation

4.Reductionist or Determinist Causes

59
Q

What is a structure?

not a building

A

organizations/establishments in society. Believed that individuals develop beliefs and values and personalities while interacting with the structure/institutions around them. Can only understand human behaviour when looking at it in relation to structures

60
Q

Example of a structure?

A

family, religion, peer groups, education, health organizations, government, social media.

61
Q

What are Roles?

A

A position within a structure - each having a status based on assumptions and biases of the society.

This can lead to oppression and inequality in positions of power.

62
Q

How do people conform to roles

A

Individuals are expected to dress, talk, perform and behave according to their role and status.

63
Q

What is a hierarchy?

A

Ranking roles based on the values in society.

Each position has specific roles and status.

64
Q

What are Norms?

A

Attached to specific rules that are considered to be standard behaviour for each role. Laws developed by cultures.

When broken, social sanctions are followed. (consequences)

65
Q

What are Values?

A

Each role has a system of values.

Individuals are expected to internalize these roles.

related to what society says is good or bad, what is appropriate and what isn’t.

66
Q

What are rules?

A

regulations within a particular activity.

67
Q

What is Deviance?

A

A behaviour that is not accepted/different from the social norm.

Deviance is considered disruptive, violating and offensive by society, but may not always be that way

68
Q

What is a collectivist society?

A

Values conformity, uniformity and cooperation.

Individual duties and obligations to the group are more important than privileges and personal freedoms.

69
Q

What is individualistic society?

A

Social behaviour is guided by personal rights and freedoms.

More tolerant on cultural variability and more open to change.

Distinction between personal and community goals.

70
Q

What are the determinants of change? (5)

isn’t the one that has the weird ones

A

Physical Environment (nature and natural things), Population change, Proximity, Social Environment, Technology

71
Q

how is physical environment (climate) a determinant of change

A

The habitat where society exists - how the physical weather, climate conditions and the state of the environment effects humans. (climate change, severe weather, pollution, microplastics)

72
Q

How is population change a determinant of change

A

Caused by immigration and emigration. It creates diversity and challenges the social system. There is a sudden increase in population, and exchange of culture, beliefs, attitudes and values.

73
Q

How is proximity a determinant of change

A

Closeness of cultural groups to others to the point of society change. Different cultural groups being in close proximity to each other encourages the exchange of cultural ideals and values. Those closer to other societies tend to change more rapidly. The exchange between cultures is called intercultural contact.

74
Q

How is Social environment a determinant of change

A

Values and attitudes are determined by a society’s way to accept changes.

Larger social environments are more diverse and are more open to change, experiments with innovations. (left wing)

Smaller social environments are more isolated. Cultural values, ideologies and practices are more relevant for longer periods of time. More reluctant to change. (status quo - right wing)

75
Q

How is technology a determinant of change

A

Technology has a huge impact on a culture’s institutions, customs and values. A lot of social values are connected with the use of technology.

It changes society because it alters the way we interact with our environment. (can make others more aware of different cultural groups, exposes people to ideals/concepts/points of view they may not have known about/considered)

76
Q

What are ethics?

A

Moral principles and values that govern individual behavior.

Norms for conducting acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.

77
Q

What is the code of conduct?

A

The code of conduct is a list of 7 requirements that must be met when conducting social science experiments to ensure they are ethical

78
Q

What are the codes of conduct (7)

A

Professional competence, Integrity, Professional and Scientific Responsibility, Humans rights, Social responsibility/non-exploitation, Conflict of interest, Findings

79
Q

Code of conduct: Professional competence

A

researcher has to be qualified

80
Q

Code of conduct: Integrity

A

Research is fair, honest, respectful, and inspires trust in subjects.

81
Q

Code of Conduct: Professional and scientific responsibility

A

professionals are entrusted with the well-being of people and don’t betray that trust.
Their responsibility is to protect and respect the trust and well being of their subjects

82
Q

Code of conduct: Human rights

A

researchers respect the rights, dignity, and diversity of people. No bias or discrimination.

83
Q

research contributes…

Code of conduct: Social responsibility/non exploitation

the responsibility isn’t a clue

A

makes sure that research contributes to the common good

84
Q

Code of conduct: Conflict of interest

A

must have no bias against subjects.

85
Q

Code of conduct: Findings

A

all research is accurate and made available to the public.

86
Q

What is the Milgram experiment?

A

it was an experiment on obedience where the subject would deliver increasing shocks when the “student” would get a question wrong. Studied how subjects would respond when the shockee expressed their pain

87
Q

What is David Reimer Experiment?

A

Psychologist John Money wanted to prove that gender was the result of socialization, so when David experienced accidental genital mutilation, he encouraged David’s parents to raise him as a girl. However throughout his life, David felt wrong and different. When he learned the truth, he began to live as David before committing suicide.

88
Q

What is the Little Albert Experiment:

A

Albert was a 9 month old who was given white and fluffy toys for three months. The leading Psychologist - John Watson then began to create loud noises behind Albert’s back as he played, which created fear associated with the objects. This gave Albert life long fears of things such as rabbits.

89
Q

What is the Harlow Monkey Experiment?

A

separated monkeys from mothers at young age and given choice between 2 substitute mothers that were placed in cage with baby monkey

-wire mother (food) or cloth mother (comfort)

The monkey would interact with both mothers, going to the wire one when hungry and the cloth one every other time

90
Q

1924 facial expression experiment

A

Psychologist Carney Landis wanted to learn more about facial expressions/the possibility of universal facial expressions.

Put an equal mix of women and men (+1 child) in a room and had them receive various stimuli to see how their facial expressions would change.

They experienced music, reading the bible, smells, a ‘jumpscare,’ faux pas’, laughter, skin disease, mental manipulation, pictures of sexual acts, art studies, stories, frogs in a bucket + shocks, were made to behead rats and received shocks.

despite the variety in stimuli, Landis was unable to prove the existence of universal facial expressions and violated almost every code of conduct.

91
Q

What is symbolic interactionism?

A

The study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.

The ethic diversity within societies by studying experiences within the groups and not judging them.

91
Q

What is feminist theory?

A

To understand the status of women in society and with the purpose to use that knowledge to better women’s lives. Focuses on social equity, the sexist and dysfunctional system to fix the gender issues within them.

92
Q

what is the evolutionary theory of change?

A

All societies evolve from simple beginnings and over time become more complexed.

-The root of the theory is the notion of progress.

-Progress is measured by a society’s ability to move towards improvement and innovate.

-primary goal is evolving from simple to sophisticated.

93
Q

What is the cyclical theory of change?

A

Society reaches a pinnacle and moves onto the next part only to return to its original state again. (Like seasons)

-Trends, traditions, beliefs and values are cyclical.

-uses birth, maturity, aging and death to explain why societies change.

-societies reach a certain level of power and relevance than die off

94
Q

What is the Challenge and Response Theory?

A

Focuses on the key ideas of challenge and response.

-Societies face challenges posed by its physical environment, internal and external forces aimed at its destruction.

-The ability to respond successfully to threats will determine their fate.

-When building civilizations, we must ensure that we are not repeating the same mistakes. (Toynbee)

95
Q

What is the Functionalist theory?

A

Aspects of Social Life (family, religion, division of labour) can be understood by two aspects ->

  1. Social Statistics: requirements necessary to maintain/achieve social order (hierarchy, policy/rules)
  2. Social Dynamics: factors that determine social change.

-concerned with how society maintains stability and social order in the competing focuses that drive change.

96
Q

What is the conflict theory?

A

Concerned with the inequalities that infect societies.

groups with different interests are in conflict - rich vs poor being the biggest (Marxist theory)

-Every society is subjected to change.

-Change brings upon disorganization and conflict.

-the conflict is strain between those with authority and those without (obey class - poor and command class - rich)

97
Q

What is the Tipping Point Theory?

A

a point of time when a group rapidly changes its behaviour by adopting a previous practice.

It has three components:

  1. The Law of Few: highlights the importance of the “core” group; very small numbers of people who introduce a new idea (+3 sub categories [connectors, mavens, salesmen])
  2. The Stickiness Factor: the aspect of the change/trend that makes it catchy and makes it stick. the appeal of it
  3. The Power of Context: the idea that the trend or idea delivered has can have a huge impact on whether people adopt or spread
98
Q

What are the three parts of the Law of the Few?

A

Mavens, Connectors, Salesmen

99
Q

Mavens

A

someone who’s an expert in people and information and carries the trend to many other people because of their connections.

100
Q

Connectors

A

Have many casual friendships and connections with people, making them crucial in the spreading of ideas

101
Q

Salesmen

A

Attractive and charming individuals who make the trend enticing and exciting to do.

102
Q

Types of social norms (4)

A

Folkways, mores, taboos and laws

103
Q

Folkways

A

norms that are not strictly enforced

104
Q

Taboos

A

mores so strong that their violation is considered to be extremely offensive and even unmentionable

104
Q

Mores

A

fixed customs or manners; moral attitudes

105
Q

Laws

A

Enforceable rules of conduct in a society with a strict and often unwaverable punishment

106
Q

Bystander apathy

A

the failure to offer help to people in need because of the mindset that others will

107
Q

Normative influences

A

A change in someone’s behaviour that is considered necessary in order to fir in a particular group.

108
Q

Informational influences

A

Individuals modify their behaviour, opinions or beliefs based on the information they receive from others

109
Q

Conformity

A

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs and behaviours to what individuals perceive as normal to their society or social group

110
Q

Anarchy

A

A social and political theory calling for the replacement of government rule with a system of self government and unlimited individual liberty

110
Q

Alienation

A

The separation of humans from an essential form of society, often resulting in feelings of powerlessness or helplessness

111
Q

Michel Foucault

A

Theorized that governments control individuals through fear and enforce norms through sanctions. We correct our own behaviour out of fear of being judged

112
Q

Noam Chomsky

his perspective on anarchy

A

Modern day anarchist

  • Capitalism is inherently exploitative and dangerous; a worker rents their labour to somebody higher up
  • Unions should be organized
  • “Anarchy is a tendency that is suspicious of domination, authority and hierarchy.”
113
Q

Karl Marx

not on comunism (aliens)

A

Coined the term alienation to express a profound sense of estrangement. Wanted to understand poverty & economic crisis.

114
Q

Belonging

A

primal and fundamental to our sense of happiness and our well being. People like to feel like they’re part of a group/community. Loneliness harms our well-being; opposite of belonging

115
Q

Four types of alienation

relation to money/communism

A

Alienation from product, alienation from process, alienation from others, alienation from self

116
Q

Happiness

A

The commitment to happiness in western culture is modern. Happiness began to be acceptable in the 18th century.

117
Q

Barriers to happiness

A

Western standards encouraged a saddened approach to life because of interpretation of religion

118
Q

Self Esteem

two kinds & where it falls on maslows hierarchy of needs

A

Fourth tier of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Two kinds:

Lower Esteem and Upper esteem

Low self esteem = no self esteem

119
Q

Lower Esteem

A

Respect from others, status, fame, recognition, attention, appreciation

120
Q

Upper esteem

A

Self-respect, confidence, competence, achievement, independence, freedom

semester 2 (8 decks)

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