CH9 Flashcards

1
Q

Mental workload:

A

the information
processing demands imposed by the performance of cognitive tasks. Workload depends on
the match between task requirements and capacities, and different people have different
capacities.

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2
Q

Effort:

A

conscious exertion

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3
Q

Arousal:

A

physiological sense of readiness for activity.

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4
Q

Resources:

A

hypothetical processing reserves or sensory, motor, or information processing capacities.
Sometimes these concepts are interrelated. Too much or too little workload impairs
performance, so a balance needs to be found.

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5
Q

Kahneman: the arousal of an individual

determines

A

the capacity available to engage in different activities.

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6
Q

An indicator of stress is

strategy adjustment:

A

when demands are high, we switch to using less effortful strategies for
performing a task. An example is attentional narrowing: you restrict your attention to an
inappropriately small set of displays or information sources. Fatigue after-effects: after a
fatiguing task, people show a preference for using low-cost strategies for performing other,
unrelated tasks.

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7
Q

attentional narrowing:

A

you restrict your attention to an

inappropriately small set of displays or information sources.

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8
Q

Fatigue after-effects:

A

after a
fatiguing task, people show a preference for using low-cost strategies for performing other,
unrelated tasks.

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9
Q

Difficulty intensitivity is

A

that allocating more resources to one of two tasks

does not always hurt performance on the other one.

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10
Q

Structural alteration is

A

changing the

structure of a task without changing its difficulty.

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11
Q

Perfect time-sharing is

A

when two tasks
shown to interfere with other tasks can nonetheless be performed together without
decrement.

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12
Q

multiple-resources concept (MRC)

A

(different sorts of tasks draw on separate resources)

Difficulty intensitivity is that allocating more resources to one of two tasks
does not always hurt performance on the other one.

Structural alteration is changing the
structure of a task without changing its difficulty.

Perfect time-sharing is when two tasks
shown to interfere with other tasks can nonetheless be performed together without
decrement.

These three are all evidence for the multiple-resources concept. The MRC is
inadequate as a model of attention but it can serve as a useful framework for predicting
operator performance.

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13
Q

Strategy shifts can be used as

A

an indicator of
changes in operator mental workload. The skill level of the performer has a large influence
on the methods or strategies employed.

indicator of changes in
operator mental workload. Large influence of skill level and processing resource demands.

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14
Q

Three classes of techniques have been developed to measure mental workload:

A

physiological, performance-based, and subjective measures.

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15
Q

Physiological measures of mental workload are

A

direct measurements of various body
or brain responses to task performance. You can either measure general arousal, or
specific brain activity.

Underlying assumption: various bodily systems are activated whenever the demand for mental effort increases. Pupil diameter (pupillometry) and
heart-rate variability are the most suited for examining changes in mental workload.

Event-related potentials have been shown to be effective indicators of mental load,
and can also show which of two tasks is seen as more important. ERPs give an
indication of more specific processing activity. The P3 is linked to workload and it has
a big amplitude when an unexpected stimulus occurs. Measuring the amplitude of
ERP components may be a good indicator of workload even when the event used to
elicit the ERP is totally irrelevant to the task.

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16
Q

Primary-task technique:

A

simply measuring some aspects of task performance. When
difficulty is below a certain level, primary-task performance will not show any
decrements. This is why it’s better to use a secondary-task methodology, in which a
second task is performed at the same time as the primary task, and the extent to
which performance on one of the tasks suffers is measured. The purpose is to use up
any capacity that might be available so that changes in the difficulty of the primary
task will be reflected in performance changes. In a loading-task paradigm, the focus
is placed on the secondary task, and different aspects of primary-task performance
are measured. In a subsidiary-task paradigm, the emphasis is placed on the primary
task, and performance on the secondary task is measured. Embedded secondary
tasks are tasks that can occur naturally in the task environment under consideration,
but are not part of the primary-task performance

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17
Q

secondary-task methodology

A

a second task is performed at the same time as the primary task, and the extent to
which performance on one of the tasks suffers is measured.

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18
Q

In a loading-task paradigm, the focus

is

A

placed on the secondary task, and different aspects of primary-task performance
are measured.

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19
Q

In a subsidiary-task paradigm, the emphasis is placed on

A

the primary

task, and performance on the secondary task is measured.

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20
Q

Embedded secondary

tasks are

A

tasks that can occur naturally in the task environment under consideration,
but are not part of the primary-task performance

21
Q

Performance operating characteristics:

A

performance on one task is plotted against
performance on a second task. The more difficult a task, the harder it will be to
combine with a second task and the more performance will suffer to the extent that
resources are withdrawn from it and allocated to the other task. Performance at
different allocation policies (e.g. devote 50% to task A and 50% to task B) will fall
along a curve, the POC.

22
Q

Subjective measures, in which people report how much workload they experience,

A

are based on judgements and they’re influenced by the range and frequency of
different possible stimuli. Ratings of a task with a relatively restricted range of
difficulty conditions will tend to overestimate workload whereas a high range of task
difficulties will result in an underestimation of task workload. This can be solved by
showing all possible conditions in a practice session. Some researchers have
proposed that unidimensional methods are just as appropriate as multidimensional
method. Dual-task performance is determined by a number of factors, including the
resources invested in the task and competition for common resources.

23
Q

A workload measure must be

A

reliable, easy to use, and sensitive.

24
Q

A measure is diagnostic if

A

it not only reflects changes in load, but also discriminates between the amounts of load
imposed on various operator capacities or resources, such as perceptual versus memory
load.

25
Intrusiveness refers to
any disruption in performance of the task as a result of the application of the mental workload measurement technique.
26
N1
selective attention
27
N2
target detection
28
P2
early processing
29
P3
memory updating
30
Situation awareness
= the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the comprehension of their meaning, and the projection of their status in the near future. It’s supported by attention, working memory, and long-term memory.
31
Cognitive factors in situation awareness:
how and where attention is directed will determine which elements in the environment are incorporated into the situation awareness, and both the salience of information and the individual’s goals and priorities in directing attention will influence perception and performance. Memory is important because situation awareness involves keeping track of events and objects in the environment. Only information that people pay attention to and are aware of influences their situation awareness. There is a direct link between situation awareness and working memory, and SA gets worse when WM resources are overtaxed.Long-term memory is also important, as you can depend on that and thus free up working memory resources for other task.
32
Situation awareness and mental workload are
independent constructs
33
To measure situation awareness,
there’s the same criteria applied to mental workload | measurement. It’s most commonly been assessed with self-report questionnaires.
34
crosstraining
in this, team members receive information and training in the tasks of other team members. Teams that must function in high-workload environments may benefit from training to recognise high-stress conditions and to adapt their behaviour accordingly.
35
Primary-task technique:
measure some aspect(s) of task performance.
36
Secondary-task | methodology:
extent to which performance on one of the tasks suffers is measured
37
Probe-reaction-time task:
whether two letters were same/different. RT longest when probe (respond to tone with key press) is presented around time that the second letter is presented. Probe-reaction time depends on nature of the task.
38
Loading-task paradigm
emphasis on second task, different | aspects of primary task performance are measured.
39
Subsidiary-task paradigm
emphasis on primary | task, performance on second task measured.
40
Embedded secondary tasks:
occur naturally in task environment, not part of primary-task performance. Important that tasks overlap on their required information resources.
41
motor programs
(functional state that allows particular movements to occur): actions that can be performed in an open-loop manner, so without feedback. Actions under conscious control are said to be performed in a closed-loop manner. Slips of action are most likely to occur during the automatic execution of routine actions, they’re like failures of attention that happen because the wrong action plan is maintained or because attention is switched to the wrong elements of a plan or aspects of the environment
42
Initiating and maintaining actions plans:
Norman has this theory that actions are based on schemas that embody the procedural knowledge needed for carrying out an act. Schemas are generalised procedures for carrying out actions. His activation- trigger-schema (ATS) system assumes that actions are governed by high-level parent schemas. When the parent schema is activated, the child schemas that control component parts of the action are initiated automatically. He proposes two systems that influence schema activation, a contention-scheduling system and a supervisory attentional system. Contention scheduling is a passive process that emerges naturally as a result of the way schemas are learned and performed. It can directly activate and order action schemas that are linked to each other with both inhibitory and excitatory connections.
43
Schemas are
generalised procedures for carrying out actions.
44
activation- | trigger-schema (ATS) system
assumes that actions are governed by high-level | parent schemas.
45
Contention scheduling is
a passive process that emerges naturally as a result of the way schemas are learned and performed. It can directly activate and order action schemas that are linked to each other with both inhibitory and excitatory connections.
46
The supervisory attentional system
Whenever no schema exists for performing an action, a higher level of control is needed. This is provided by the SAS that can directly activate or inhibit schemas but cannot select them directly. Without the SAS, attention is withdrawn from goals or actions, and the relevant schemas may suffer from lack of activation. - If the SAS is not intact or not functioning properly, two disorders may result: either increased perseveration or disorganised behaviour. Top-down control by supervisory attentional system (SAS), for less familiar actions.
47
Performance operating characteristic (POC)
extent to which two tasks can be performed together.
48
Allocation policies:
how much % allocated to either task, POC curve. its first necessary to measure single task performance for both tasks, that counts as 100%