CH7

Question 1

Explicit memory tests

Answer 1

require that one consciously refer back to the learning phase.
Retrieval of specific information might
occur consciously or unconsciously in both tests.

Question 2

implicit memory tests

Answer 2

indirectly assess memory by presenting tasks that do not seem to be related to
the information presented during the learning episode. Retrieval of specific information might
occur consciously or unconsciously in both tests.

Question 3

Iconic memory:

Answer 3

all items from a briefly flashed array are stored in this memory buffer
in which they stay for up to 800 ms. Sperling hypothesized that there is some type of
visual memory that holds all the items in the display for a period of time, but that this
representation faded before all items could be reported. Therefore, he came up with
a partial-report procedure to determine whether more items could be apprehended
from the display than initially seemed to be the case. This has been proven.

Question 4

Partial-report procedure

Answer 4

array of letters, followed by cue that indicates which row. All of letters were stored in the same
manner.

Question 5

Partial-report superiority effect:

Answer 5

The higher percentage of reported letters obtained with the partial-report
procedure is called the partial-report superiority effect. The availability of the
letters decreases as the cue is delayed, which shows that the lifespan of the
iconic image is less than a second

higher % of reported letters. After delay, it disappears.

Question 6

Temporal-integration paradigm

Answer 6

two visual displays at different temporal intervals. Determine
whether displays were integrated into single percept. With delay of more than one second it
disappears.

Question 7

temporal integration paradigm,

Answer 7

two visual displays are briefly presented at different temporal intervals and
observers are required to judge an aspect of an image that can only be
inferred from the information integrated from both displays. When more than
one second intervenes between the two displays, performance fails.

Question 8

Iconic memory has two stages:

Answer 8

a retinal afterimage and a later stage of
representation that combines the images from the two eyes.Together, they’re
a memory system that has a large capacity but a short duration. The function
might be to contribute to a stable perception of the world.

Question 9

Echoic memory:

Answer 9

same as iconic memory but for auditory information. THe first form
of auditory sensory memory appears to reflect an ear-specific representation of the
physical characteristics of the stimulus. The second form is a representation of
information that was previously heard that may last up to several seconds. Auditory
attention may be more easily directed on pitch and frequency than on location
because of the low spatial resolution of the auditory system

Two separate forms: ear-specific representation of physical characteristics of the stimulus (echo,
echoic memory) and representation that may last up to several seconds, from both ears. Partial-report
superiority effect smaller, cue may not be as effective. Advantage for partial report could last as long
as 5 seconds.

Question 10

Working memory

Answer 10

= short-term memory: a memory system that holds information relevant to current goals and
activity. Made up of a visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and central executive (AKA Baddeley’s working memory model)

Question 11

Phonological loop:

Answer 11

contains information according to how it sounds. It only has
limited capacity for processing information. It seems to be crucial for holding and
manipulating verbal information. Perceptual load may have the effect of sharpening the ability to selectively attend to relevant information, but memory resources must be available to suppress distraction.

Represents information according to how it sounds. People can report back more phonologically
dissimilar items than similar items. Speech or speech-like sounds directly interfere. Only limited
capacity for processing information. Dependence of memory span on time it takes to pronounce the
items, within about 2 seconds. Appears to be only a part of the working memory system. Refreshing
information periodically to free up resources (instead of repetition). Importance of the availability of
memory resources for keeping us on track. Memory processes may be required to actively inhibit
irrelevant information.

Question 12

The Visuo-spatial sketchpad:

Answer 12

there is a link between spatial working memory and
spatial selective attention. The processes involved in keeping a representation active
in working memory are the same as those used in selectively attending to locations.
There may be a process of rehearsal for spatial memory that resembles spatial
selective attention.

Spatial memory. Processes involved in keeping a representation active in working memory are same
as those used in selectively attending to locations. Attention to location may be involved in rehearsing
information in spatial working memory. Brain imaging: high degree of overlap.

Question 13

The Central executive:

Answer 13

controller of the two slave systems. More of an attentional system than a memory store.

How memory is controlled. Mediate between memory systems, selecting and maintaining strategies.
Cognitive control: frontal patients, performing a secondary task. Most errors about omitting steps, but
corrected. Correlation between errors on two tasks. ‘Competitive queuing’ network: actions
represented by nodes. Top-down activation from goal units and bottom-up activation from previously
learned associations. When action is executed, node is inhibited. When correcting errors, increased
competition from other objects.

Question 14

Conceptual short-term memory

Answer 14

the process of identification and categorisation are
thought to occur “on the fly” and rapidly; they commence as perceptual information
from the stimulus accumulates during its presentation, and they are completed during
the first second after a particular stimulus has been presented. The initial
identification and categorisation of stimuli are mediated by a conceptual short-term
memory system that enables the rapid computation of post-categorical, meaningful
representations of perceived stimuli.

rapid computation of
postcategorical, meaningful representations of perceived stimuli. Activating the semantic knowledge

Question 15

Attentional blink

Answer 15

performance shows a half-second dip after only one word has been identified. It seems to stem from interference of the processing requirements of the
target. The second target may be processed to a certain extent but the resulting
representation requires further processing in order to be stored in memory. If a
previous item is still receiving stage 2 processing, selection of a new item has to wait
because stage 2 processing is limited. Reporting an item briefly presented in a
sequence requires that the item be identified, selected, and consolidated

interference of the processing requirements. Chun and Potter: two-stage model of
the attentional blink. RSVP, identification of items within the conceptual short-term memory system,
processed up to a semantic level. Representation does require further processing to be stored, draw
upon limited attentional capacity. Conceptual representation of a perceived item is compared to a
target template, then: stage 2 processing. Selection of a new item then has to wait. Relatively good
second target performance at lag 1: lag-1 sparing. The gate is open longer than the actual duration of
the first target. Supported by measurements of the ERPs, the updating of working memory (P3) only
influenced by the blink.

Question 16

Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP)

Answer 16

visual items one after the other at the same location, about 10 items per second.

Question 17

Change blindness:

Answer 17

the failure to detect changes in the visual environment. Important
for change blindness to occur is that the presentation of the two images is separated
by a disruptive visual event, or mask. It can occur even when observers apparently
attend to the object being changed.

Question 18

Short-term consolidation:

Answer 18

the process that ensures that perceived information is remembered and reported. The time to complete short-term consolidation depends
on the amount of information to be remembered.

Question 19

Do memory operations occupy the central bottleneck?

Answer 19

Just holding items in memory
sometimes has little effect on the performance of other tasks. However, when the
information in memory has to be searched through in order to find the right data to
perform a task, response times are slower than if the information is simply present.
For example, it has been shown that memory scanning cannot be carried out
concurrently with even the simplest arithmetic tasks. Retrieval of items from long-
term memory also seems to be subject to the central bottleneck: two retrievals cannot be carried out concurrently. However, at least some aspects of retrieval can
occur in parallel.

Question 20

Implicit learning

Answer 20

= learning without intention. This has also been observed in amnesic patients. Sequence
learning depends on two processes, an automatic association process that links adjacent
items and an attention-demanding higher-order process that builds hierarchical codes based
on grouping elements of the sequence at a higher level. So, sequence learning can occur
implicitly, and this learning occurs at least partly as the result of automatic associative
processes. Associative processes operate independently of mental load, but only on events
that are active in working memory.

Question 21

Sequence

learning depends on

Answer 21

two processes, an automatic association process that links adjacent
items and an attention-demanding higher-order process that builds hierarchical codes based
on grouping elements of the sequence at a higher level. So, sequence learning can occur
implicitly, and this learning occurs at least partly as the result of automatic associative
processes. Associative processes operate independently of mental load, but only on events
that are active in working memory.

Question 22

Serial reaction time task:

Answer 22

press assigned key whenever stimulus appears. Random condition
or repeating sequence condition. In repeating sequence much more improvement. Korsakoff patients:
no awareness, but learning. Compare learning in single-task conditions to one with secondary task.
Unique associations were also learned with secondary task. So there is automatic association process
and attention-demanding higher-order process. Selective attention to relevant dimensions does seem
to be necessary for learning.