Ch.4: Knowledge, evidence, and errors in thinking

Question 1

Theories about knowledge

Answer 1

• Rationalist
• empiricist
• Structure of the mind (Kant)

Question 2

Rationalists

Answer 2

• claim that most human knowledge and truth derives from reason.
• like the Greek philosopher Plato

Question 3

Empiricists

Answer 3

• claim that truth and knowledge are derived through empirical evidence collected by our physical senses.
• Empiricism is the opposite of rationalism

Question 4

Structure of the mind

Answer 4

• Our experience of reality depends on the structure of our minds.
• NOT a matter of reasoning or empirical evidence

-= more prone to certain perceptual and cognitive errors.

Question 5

Knowledge

Answer 5

-information or experience we believe to be true and for which we have justification or evidence.

Question 6

Cognitive Error in thinking

Answer 6

• Our perceptions of the world around us may easily be skewed by social influences.

Question 7

Perceptual Error in thinking

Answer 7

• Our brains construct a picture of the world, fills in missing info with our expectations

–>◦ Example: war of the worlds that was spoken over the radio and people believed it.

Question 8

Probability errors

Answer 8

probability of making a wrong decision

Question 9

Self-serving biases

Answer 9

• misperception that we are in control
• tendency to overestimate ourselves in comparison to others
• tendency to exaggerate our strengths and minimize our weaknesses

Question 10

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 10

• Causing something to happen b/c you believe it will

- influences events leading to the outcome that ultimately leads to it happening

Question 11

Errors in thinking

Answer 11

• Cognitive and Perceptual

- Social Errors and Biases

Question 12

Misperception of random data

Answer 12

-We make meaning when there are none.
–>Confirmation bias
◦ Example: when you look at the clouds or lights in the sky and trying to explain them or connect them to things that we know.

Question 13

Types of Cognitive and Perceptual Errors in Thinking

Answer 13

• Perceptual
• Misperception of random data
• Probability
• Self-serving biases
• Self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 14

Social Error & Biases make people…

Answer 14

• perceive the world differently and groups from the way we do in isolation
• Groups can systematically distort both the gathering and interpretation of evidence

Question 15

“One of us/one of them” error

bias error

Answer 15

• We tend to treat those similar to us better than those who are different than us.

◦ (Holocaust)

Question 16

Types of Social Error & Biases

Answer 16

• “One of us/one of them” error
• Societal expectations
• Group pressure and conformity
• Diffusion of responsibility

Question 17

Diffusion of responsibility

social error

Answer 17

• If responsibility is not explicitly assigned to us, we tend to regard it as not our problem but as belonging to somebody else.
• Much more likely to come to someone’s aid if we are alone then if we are in a crowd.
• Bystander effect .

Question 18

Group pressure and conformity

social error

Answer 18

-perceive the world differently and groups than you would alone
-Groups can distort the way we see things and influence us to do things we normally wouldn’t
◦ (Asch Experiment–> diff. size lines)

Question 19

Matt Carington Case

Answer 19

• Boy dies from too much water

- ppl don’t call 911 for long time b/c told not too

Question 20

Epistemology

Answer 20

How we know what we know

Question 21

Paradigms

Answer 21

• Our world views

- shaped by our understanding of truth and the ultimate sources of knowledge

Question 22

Evaluating evidence

Answer 22

-Credibility: Education, Experience, Reputation, Accomplishments

-Accuracy: Consistency
of evidence

Question 23

Limitations of EVIDENCE

Answer 23

• Direct experience and False Memories
• Hearsay
• Expert/Personal testimony

Question 24

False Memory Syndrome

Answer 24

• mind fills in gaps with things that didn’t actually happen

- Ex: witnesses of the Challenger explosion dramatically altered their memories of the disaster

Question 25

Language and False Memory

Answer 25

-using certain words elicit different emotions or ideas

-EX: Speed of car accident; most dramatic words–>least –“collided”(45)
“bumped” (40)
“hit” (35mph)
“contacted” (32mph)

Question 26

Anecdotal Evidence

Answer 26

• Personal testimony.
• Unreliable because it may be exaggerated or distorted.

-Ex: eye witness testimony

Question 27

Expert testimony

Answer 27

-one of the most credible sources of evidence, but not foolproof B/C

#1) Experts (within all fields) disagree with one another. 
#2) Experts can be biased.

Question 28

confirmation bias

Answer 28

when you look for evidence that confirms your assumptions and reject evidence that contradicts them.

Question 29

Credible research resources

Answer 29

Book, Scholarly peer-reviewed journal article, newspaper/magazine, website: .org, .gov, and .edu