ch.2

Question 1

goal of research

Answer 1

To develop knowledge about factors that cause people to think and behave differently
To determine factors that constrain or limit behavior

Question 2

theories

Answer 2

Theories organize knowledge by proposing links among variables.

Variable – a measured characteristic on which people differ.

Question 3

postulates

Answer 3

Postulates – links among variables in theories that are based on:
Results of research
Observations and experience
Speculations 
Combination of all these sources

Question 4

hypothesis

Answer 4

proposed relationship between two variables that can be tested in research.

Question 5

hypothetical constructs

Answer 5

Abstract concepts that are used in theories and studied in research

Question 6

operational definition

Answer 6

Concrete representations of hypothetical constructs

Are directly observable

Question 7

hypothesis and prediction

Answer 7

Any one hypothetical construct will have more than one possible operational definition.

Predictions restate hypotheses in terms of operational definitions.

Question 8

drawing conclusions

Answer 8

Where the hypotheses supported?
Quantitative data
Statistical analysis provides information about how likely it is that a certain outcome occurred by chance.
Qualitative data
Researchers look for patterns of responses or behavior that support the hypotheses.

Question 9

what does the data mean?

Answer 9

Research findings can often have more than one explanation.
Researchers who hold different theoretical orientations are likely to put more faith in interpretations that are consistent with the theories they prefer.
A given phenomenon could have more than one cause and explanation.

Question 10

verifying results

Answer 10

Ensure accuracy by verifying research results through:
Exact Replication – redoing the study using the same procedures.
Conceptual Replication – redoing the study with changes in procedures.
Generalizability
Results of research on a hypothesis should be similar regardless of how a study is conducted

Question 11

research strategies

Answer 11

Research strategy
A general approach to doing research
Defined in terms of how data are collected
Strategies most commonly used in research on prejudice:
Correlational studies
Experiments

Question 12

correlational studies

Answer 12

Researchers measure two or more variables and look for relationships among them.
Surveys are most commonly used.

Question 13

survey research

Answer 13

Respondents answer questions designed to assess their attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviors, and personalities.

Question 14

sampling

Answer 14

Sampling
The process of how the researchers find participants
Two types of Sampling

Question 15

probability sampling

Answer 15

Sample has all characteristics of the population in the same proportion they are found in the population.
Provides confidence that relationships found in the sample exist in the population.

Question 16

convenience sampling

Answer 16

Sample consists of people from whom the researchers can easily collect data.
No way to know how well the sample represents any given population.
Must be cautious about drawing conclusions.

Question 17

correlation coefficient

Answer 17

A statistic that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
-1 ≤ r ≥ 1
0 = no relationship
-1 or 1 = perfect relationship
Positive or negative indicates the direction of correlation.

Correlational research can only show that two variables are related to each other.
It can not determine whether one of the variables is causing the other.

Question 18

covariation

Answer 18

requires the causal variable to be related to the effect variable.

Question 19

time precedence of the cause

Answer 19

the cause must come before the effect.

Question 20

causality

Answer 20

Absence of alternative explanations for the effect

Question 21

experiments

Answer 21

In experiments, researchers take control of the research situation to ensure that the three criteria for causality are met.
This allows researchers to determine if one variable caused another variable to change.
Independent variable = Proposed cause
Dependent variable = Proposed effect
Researchers manipulate the independent variable by creating two or more conditions.

Question 22

true experiments

Answer 22

For a True Experiment to occur three criteria need to be met –

1. Manipulation of an I.V.
2. Random Assignment of participants
3. Control of all other extraneous variables and confounds

Question 23

laboratory experiment

Answer 23

Research carried out in a highly controlled environment

Question 24

field experiments

Answer 24

Research carried out in a natural setting while maintaining as much control as possible

Question 25

measuring stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination

Answer 25

Can only be measured indirectly Researchers must be confident that measures they use accurately assess prejudice. Two essential criteria for accurate measurement: Reliability Validity

Question 26

reliability

Answer 26

Measure of its consistency in providing essentially the same result each time it is used with the same person. Characteristics being measured are assumed to be relatively stable across time. Two ways to assess reliability of a measure: Test-retest reliability – group of people complete the measure at two different times. Internal consistency – the extent to which people respond in the same way to all the items.

Question 27

validity

Answer 27

Refers to the accuracy of a measure Does it measure what it is intended to measure? Assessed by collecting a variety of research evidence, including: Convergent validity – the degree to which scores on a measure correlate with measures of related characteristics and behaviors. Discriminant validity – the extent to which a measure does not assess characteristics that it is not supposed to assess.

Question 28

social desirability response bias

Answer 28

People’s tendency to give socially desirable responses Can be correlated with scores on a measure Problem of discriminant validity

Question 29

self- report measures

Answer 29

Asking people about their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors and then recording what they say Most commonly used method of assessing stereotypes and prejudice advantages: Easy to administer Many people can complete them at the same time Can cover multiple topics and about behavior in a variety of situations Does not require special equipment Only way to find out what people think disadvantages: Easy for people to edit what they say and to conceal their true attitudes and opinions. Anonymity of respondents reduces socially desirable responding on questionnaires. Can use unobtrusive and implicit cognition measures so that people do not realize that prejudice is being measured. Or can measure physiological responses that are difficult for people to control.

Question 30

physiological measures

Answer 30

Assess changes in the body’s responses to a stimulus. Examples: Heart rate and blood pressure, electrical conductivity of the skin, voice pitch, small movements of the facial muscles, eye blink rate, and brain imaging Can distinguish between positive and negative emotional reactions to a stimulus. Can indicate the intensity of the reaction.

Question 31

implicit association test

Answer 31

Assesses extent to which unassociated concepts makes responding more difficult. Response competition - 2 responses compete against one another, a habitual response and an opposing response. The stronger the habitual response, the longer it takes to suppress it and make the opposing response.

Question 32

self report vs physicological vs implicit cognition measures

Answer 32

There is a low correlation between scores on self-report measures and scores on physiological and implicit measures. People are able to control responses on self-report measures when motivated. Physiological and implicit measures are automatic and people have little control over responses. Measures different things - controlled vs. uncontrolled expressions of attitudes