ch.2 Flashcards
goal of research
To develop knowledge about factors that cause people to think and behave differently
To determine factors that constrain or limit behavior
theories
Theories organize knowledge by proposing links among variables.
Variable – a measured characteristic on which people differ.
postulates
Postulates – links among variables in theories that are based on: Results of research Observations and experience Speculations Combination of all these sources
hypothesis
proposed relationship between two variables that can be tested in research.
hypothetical constructs
Abstract concepts that are used in theories and studied in research
operational definition
Concrete representations of hypothetical constructs
Are directly observable
hypothesis and prediction
Any one hypothetical construct will have more than one possible operational definition.
Predictions restate hypotheses in terms of operational definitions.
drawing conclusions
Where the hypotheses supported?
Quantitative data
Statistical analysis provides information about how likely it is that a certain outcome occurred by chance.
Qualitative data
Researchers look for patterns of responses or behavior that support the hypotheses.
what does the data mean?
Research findings can often have more than one explanation.
Researchers who hold different theoretical orientations are likely to put more faith in interpretations that are consistent with the theories they prefer.
A given phenomenon could have more than one cause and explanation.
verifying results
Ensure accuracy by verifying research results through:
Exact Replication – redoing the study using the same procedures.
Conceptual Replication – redoing the study with changes in procedures.
Generalizability
Results of research on a hypothesis should be similar regardless of how a study is conducted
research strategies
Research strategy
A general approach to doing research
Defined in terms of how data are collected
Strategies most commonly used in research on prejudice:
Correlational studies
Experiments
correlational studies
Researchers measure two or more variables and look for relationships among them.
Surveys are most commonly used.
survey research
Respondents answer questions designed to assess their attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviors, and personalities.
sampling
Sampling
The process of how the researchers find participants
Two types of Sampling
probability sampling
Sample has all characteristics of the population in the same proportion they are found in the population.
Provides confidence that relationships found in the sample exist in the population.
convenience sampling
Sample consists of people from whom the researchers can easily collect data.
No way to know how well the sample represents any given population.
Must be cautious about drawing conclusions.
correlation coefficient
A statistic that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
-1 ≤ r ≥ 1
0 = no relationship
-1 or 1 = perfect relationship
Positive or negative indicates the direction of correlation.
Correlational research can only show that two variables are related to each other.
It can not determine whether one of the variables is causing the other.
covariation
requires the causal variable to be related to the effect variable.
time precedence of the cause
the cause must come before the effect.
causality
Absence of alternative explanations for the effect
experiments
In experiments, researchers take control of the research situation to ensure that the three criteria for causality are met.
This allows researchers to determine if one variable caused another variable to change.
Independent variable = Proposed cause
Dependent variable = Proposed effect
Researchers manipulate the independent variable by creating two or more conditions.
true experiments
For a True Experiment to occur three criteria need to be met –
- Manipulation of an I.V.
- Random Assignment of participants
- Control of all other extraneous variables and confounds
laboratory experiment
Research carried out in a highly controlled environment
field experiments
Research carried out in a natural setting while maintaining as much control as possible
measuring stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination
Can only be measured indirectly
Researchers must be confident that measures they use accurately assess prejudice.
Two essential criteria for accurate measurement:
Reliability
Validity
reliability
Measure of its consistency in providing essentially the same result each time it is used with the same person.
Characteristics being measured are assumed to be relatively stable across time.
Two ways to assess reliability of a measure:
Test-retest reliability – group of people complete the measure at two different times.
Internal consistency – the extent to which people respond in the same way to all the items.
validity
Refers to the accuracy of a measure
Does it measure what it is intended to measure?
Assessed by collecting a variety of research evidence, including:
Convergent validity – the degree to which scores on a measure correlate with measures of related characteristics and behaviors.
Discriminant validity – the extent to which a measure does not assess characteristics that it is not supposed to assess.
social desirability response bias
People’s tendency to give socially desirable responses
Can be correlated with scores on a measure
Problem of discriminant validity
self- report measures
Asking people about their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors and then recording what they say
Most commonly used method of assessing stereotypes and prejudice
advantages:
Easy to administer
Many people can complete them at the same time
Can cover multiple topics and about behavior in a variety of situations
Does not require special equipment
Only way to find out what people think
disadvantages:
Easy for people to edit what they say and to conceal their true attitudes and opinions.
Anonymity of respondents reduces socially desirable responding on questionnaires.
Can use unobtrusive and implicit cognition measures so that people do not realize that prejudice is being measured.
Or can measure physiological responses that are difficult for people to control.
physiological measures
Assess changes in the body’s responses to a stimulus.
Examples:
Heart rate and blood pressure, electrical conductivity of the skin, voice pitch, small movements of the facial muscles, eye blink rate, and brain imaging
Can distinguish between positive and negative emotional reactions to a stimulus.
Can indicate the intensity of the reaction.
implicit association test
Assesses extent to which unassociated concepts makes responding more difficult.
Response competition - 2 responses compete against one another, a habitual response and an opposing response.
The stronger the habitual response, the longer it takes to suppress it and make the opposing response.
self report vs physicological vs implicit cognition measures
There is a low correlation between scores on self-report measures and scores on physiological and implicit measures.
People are able to control responses on self-report measures when motivated.
Physiological and implicit measures are automatic and people have little control over responses.
Measures different things - controlled vs. uncontrolled expressions of attitudes
