Ch.2 Flashcards
Chordate characteristics
- Notochord
• Support to organism. Reinforced rod - Dorsal nerve tube
• Transmits signals - Postanal tail
• Propulsion - Endostyle
• Absorbs iodine
diploblastic
having two embryonic germ layers (Latin germen, “bud”): ectoderm that becomes the cells of the outer body, and endoderm that differentiates and lines the gut.
triploblastic
other phyla have a third germ layer, mesoderm, that contributes to many organ systems and makes these organisms triploblastic
Bilateria
The triploblastic phyla comprise Bilateria (Latin, “two sides”).
At some point in their life cycle, whether as larvae or adults or both, all bilaterians have a body plan with two sides that are mirror images of each other (i.e., they are bilateral).
There are two major divisions within Bilateria:
Protostomia (Greek pro, “earlier”; stoma, “mouth”)
and Deuterostomia (Greek deuteros, “second”).
This division was originally based on embryonic features, including development of the mouth and anus during gastrulation.
notochord
A notochord, a dorsal (Latin dorsum, “back”) stiffening rod that gives phylum Chordata its name.
rod but also as an attachment site for segmental muscles that power swimming.
In most vertebrates, the notochord is transient, replaced during development by the vertebral column and remaining in adults only as a portion of the intervertebral discs.
dorsal neural tube
The neural tube coordinates muscle activity needed for swimming and, in vertebrates, develops into the spinal cord and brain, collectivelv known as the central nervous system.
Electrical impulse —> muscle contraction, locomotion
A muscular postanal tail
A muscular postanal tail (i.e., a tail that extends beyond the anus)
Muscles of the postanal tail provide more power for swimming than other mecha-nisms, such as cilia.
Inside surface area
endostyle
An endostyle, a ciliated, glandular groove on the floor of the pharynx.
endostyle takes up iodine like the vertebrate thyroid gland.
Thyroid gland in humans? Developmental descendant from endostyle
Other features have been debated as chordate characters.
all chordates pump blood, but not all chordates have a definitive heart.
Phyeagneal gills
Chordate origins and evolution Compared with other metazoans
the internal organization of chordates appears to be “upside down.”
Annelids such as earthworms, for example, have a nerve cord on the ventral (Latin venter, “belly”) side and heart and primary blood vessel on the dorsal side; in chor-dates, these positions are reversed.
Extant nonvertebrate chordates
Extant nonvertebrate chordates are small marine animals in two clades: lancelets (Cephalochordata) and tunicates (Urochordata).
Cephalochordata
Cephalochordata refers to the notochord’s extension to the anterior tip of the body (Greek kephale, “head”).
- Notochord
- Dorsal nerve tube
- Postanal tail
- Endostyle
Also known as amphioxus, amphis = double, oxys = sharp. Superficially fishlike marine animals usually less than 5 cm long.
29 sps of lancelets.
Have unique ring oral cirri that prevents coarse particles from entering mouth.
Swim using myomeres. Sequential contraction of them bends body side to side, resulting in forward or reverse movement.
The notochord is incompressible elastic rod that prevents the body from shortening when myomeres contract
Urochordata
refers to the position of the notochord in the larval tail (Greek oura, “tail”). Chrode = string
Sister group to Vertebrata: Urochordata
• Larval forms free-swimming
• Exhibit chordate characters
• Larvae undergo metamorphosis
• Adult forms sessile
• Lose most chordate characters
• Retain endostyle
- filter feeders, mucus glands to collect food
Vertebrate characters
- Cranium (bony, cartilaginous, or fibrous structure surrounding the brain.)
• Tripartite brain (fore,mid,hind)
• Sensory organs(asst w parts of brain) - Muscular pharynx (throat region)
• more efficient for food transport - Gills
• not unique to verts but chordates
- phyeangeal arches, respiratory system (1st)
• Gills derived from endoderm. - Specialized organs
• Complex endocrine organs. Endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, produce hormones that regulate many body functions.
• Multichambered heart. Vertebrate circulation is powered by a multichambered heart that distributes respiratory gases and nutrients to all cells of the body. - Vertebrae
- individual bones that make up spine, mineralized tissue inside body
Directional terms
Dorsal: toward back
Ventral: toward belly
Posterior/caudal: toward tail
Anterior/cranial: toward head
Lateral: toward sides
Medial: toward mid line of body
Proximal: towards middle body
Distal: towards ends of body
Developmental tissues
• Vertebrates are triploblastic
- Ectoderm (ectos = outside, derm = skin)
• Outermost layer – forms epidermis, ends of the digestive tract, nervous system
• Neurogenic placodes thickenings of ectoderm form sensory organs - Mesoderm (mesos = middle, derm = skin)
• Middle layer – forms dermis, skeleton, muscles, connective tissue, circulatory system,
excretory system, reproductive system - Endoderm (endos = within, derm = skin)
• Forms most of digestive tract, gas exchange surfaces of gills and lungs,liver,pancreas, thyroid, gametes
Specializations of mesoderm
Somitic mesoderm
• Repeating segments that can specialize later
• Become vertebrae, skeletal (voluntary) muscles, dermis
- behind head region, think of ribs going down body, that’s how develops in this segment line
• somites: form on either side of the neural tube
Intermediate mesoderm
• Also repeating segments
• Kidney structures, gonads, urogenital ducts
Lateral plate mesoderm
• Unsegmented
• Viscera (internal organs), smooth muscle (also muscle around digestive tract), cardiac muscle (involuntary)
Significance of neural crest
• Neural crest tissues are unique to vertebrates
• Come from infolding of neural plate
• neural crest cells Break away and migrate throughout developing embryo
• Multipotent – become many kinds of tissues
• Cranial bones, nerves, muscles; integumentary
pigment cells; secretory glands; tooth buds
• Homologous genes and cells have been found in cephalochordates and urochordates
Neural crest cells don’t have specific task after breaking up unlike other cells, can contribute wherever they end up.
many scientists regard neural crest as a fourth germ layer,
Significance of the pharyngeal region
6 repeating arches —> originally supported gills, now vastly diversified and develope in diff ways which changes function.
Why does knowing germ layers matter?
• Many structures are composed of tissues from different germ layers
• The germ layers unique to vertebrates allow for greater complexity
• Interactions between products of different germ layers also increase complexity
• For example: teeth
• Enamel = ectoderm
• Dentine = neural crest
Epithelial tissue
sheets of tissue, forms boundaries.
Skin and lining of organs
Muscular tissue
contain actin and myosin protein fibres, allow for
contraction.
Can only pull hence why having more complex myomeres increases locomotion
Neural tissue
Transmit chemical and electrical signals, support the transmitting cells
Connective tissue
structure and support – bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fats, blood
Structure and support
Integumentary
Developmental origin
• Epidermis = ectoderm
• Dermis = mesoderm
Function:
• Protection
• Respiration
• Sensation
• Communication (bird feathers, blushing)
Vertebrate skin consists of two layers, the epidermis (outer laver) and dermis (inner layer);
Skeletal
Developmental origin
• Mesoderm and neural crest
• Three types of bone growth
1. Dermal ossification (grow in thin layers in Dermis, flat)
2. Endochondral ossification (limbs, 1st copy made of cartilage (precursor) bony tissue mineralized and replaces it, starts in middle, sometimes have growth plates it starts from)
3. Perichondral ossification
• Function
• Support
• Blood cell growth
• Storage
Muscular
Developmental origin
• Cardiac and smooth muscle = lateral plate
mesoderm
• Skeletal muscles = somitic mesoderm
• Axial muscles = myomeres (Greek mys “muscle”. Myomeres are segmental blocks of skeletal muscle fibers arranged along both sides of the body and separated by sheets of connective tissue termed myosepta.)
Function
• Movement
• Work by contraction only Vertebrate
Respiratory
Developmental origin
• Endoderm
Location
• Gills: in pharynx or outside of head
• Lungs: In a body cavity
Function
• Gas exchange – absorb oxygen, release wastes
Circulatory
Developmental origin
• Heart muscle = lateral plate mesoderm
• Blood vessels = somitic mesoderm
• Vessel muscle = neural crest cells
Location
• In separate body cavity
Function
• Transport blood (and all it contains) around the body
- nutrients, waste, etc
Chambered heart = greater efficiency of gas exchange
Digestive
Developmental origin
• Primarily endoderm
Function
• Break down food particles
• Absorb nutrient molecules
Excretory
Developmental origin
• Intermediate mesoderm
• Nephrotome
Location
• Between body cavity and body wall
Function
• Filter waste
• Maintain balance of water and ions
Reproductive
Developmental origin
• Gonad structures = intermediate mesoderm
• Gamete producing germ cells = endoderm
Function
• Produce gametes
• Secrete hormones
• In some cases, secrete layers to protect gametes
• In some cases, protect developing embryo
Reproductive specializations in fish
• Anadromous: Born in fresh water, migrate to ocean to grow, return to fresh water to breed
• Catadromous: Born in ocean, migrate to fresh water to grow, return to ocean to breed
• Not all fish are oviparous (lay eggs), some sharks are viviparous (develop embryos internally)
Endocrine
Developmental origin
• Endoderm and neural crest
Function
• Secrete hormones
• Growth and development
• Behaviour
• Physiology
Nervous/sensory
Developmental origin
• Neural crest, ectoderm,mesoderm
Function
• Transmit signals
• Receive sensory input
• Process information
• Coordinates processes
Olfaction and chemoreception
• Detection of chemical signals in the environment
• Molecules bind with specific receptors
• Smell works over larger distances
• Signals go to forebrain
• Taste works over close distances
• Signals go to hindbrain
Vision
• Processing light through a lens
• Light moves differently in different media
• Retina contains photoreceptors
• Different groups of vertebrates have different kinds of photoreceptors and process different wavelengths of light
•Midbrain
Auditory and equilibrium
• Hearing = processing sound vibrations
• Vibrations get translated to electrical signals
• Equilibrium = processing movement of fluid in vestibular system
• Collection of chamber and canals filled with fluid and lined with hair cells
Mechanoreception
• Processing pressure from environment
• Lateral line system in fishes and some amphibians
• Canals around head and trunk
• Water flow deforms cupula, which bends hair cells
Electroreception
• Processing electrical impulses from contracting muscles
• Only works in water
• Ampullae of Lorenzini
• Pores filled with electroconductive gel
• Differences in electric potentials received in different sections of the system allow the animal to locate the source of the signal
pharyngeal arch
The term pharyngeal arch encompasses the segmental structures of the vertebrate pharynx that include internal skeletal components, associated muscles, nerves, and blood vessels best seen in a pharyngula, an early developmental stage common to vertebrate embryos.
Pharyngeal arches are delimited on the outside by grooves called pharyngeal clefts.
On the inside of the pharynx, a series of outpocketings known as pharyngeal pouches separate the arches from each other.
Derivatives of the pharyngeal arches are strongly conserved throughout vertebrate history
neural plate and neural tube
Initially represented by a thickening on the dorsal surface of the embryo known as the neural plate, the nervous system undergoes early and dramatic development to form the neural tube.
The neural tube is the primary neurogenic (neuron-generating) tissue of vertebrates.
By the early embryonic stage, the three primary brain regions have differentiated
Neurogenic placodes
Embryonic vertebrates uniquely have thickenings of the ectoderm in the anterior portion of the head, called neurogenic placodes,
that give rise to nerves and sensory receptors of the nose, ear, and other sensory systems
Like neural crest, cells of neurogenic placodes migrate.
Key concepts
• Chordates have four unique characters
- Notochord, dorsal nerve tube, postanal tail, endostyle
• Vertebrates have unique germ tissue development
- Neural crest, neurogenic placodes
• Products of the four germ tissue layers form the complex organ systems
• Sensory input is different in water than on land
