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Human A&P > CH.2 > Flashcards

CH.2 Flashcards

1
Q

Matter

A

—anything that has mass and

occupies space

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2
Q

3 states of matter

A

solid, liquid, gas

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3
Q

Energy

A

capacity to do work

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4
Q

kinetic

A

energy in action

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5
Q

potential

A

stored energy

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6
Q

chemical energy

A

stored in bonds of chemical substances

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7
Q

Electrical energy

A

– Results from movement of charged particles

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8
Q

Mechanical energy

A

Directly involved in moving matter

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9
Q

• Radiant or electromagnetic energy

A

Travels in waves (e.g., visible light, ultraviolet

light, and x-rays)

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10
Q

Elements

A

– Matter is composed of elements
– Elements cannot be broken into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical methods
– Each has unique properties

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11
Q

• Atoms

A 
Unique building blocks for each element
– Give each element its physical & chemical 
properties
– Smallest particles of an element with 
properties of that element
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12
Q

Atomic symbol

A

One- or two-letter chemical shorthand for

each element

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13
Q

Four elements make up 96.1% of body mass

A 
Element
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
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14
Q

9 elements make up 3.9% of body mass

A 
Element
Calcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Sodium
Chlorine
Magnesium
Iodine
Iron
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15
Q

11 elements make up < 0.01% of body mass

A 
Element
Chromium
Copper
Fluorine
Manganese
Silicon
Zinc
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16
Q

Atoms

A 
composed of subatomic 
particles
– Protons, neutrons, electrons
• Protons and neutrons found in nucleus
• Electrons orbit nucleus in an electron 
cloud
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17
Q

Nucleus of atoms

A 
Almost entire mass of the atom
• Neutrons
• Carry no charge
• Mass = 1 atomic mass unit (amu)
• Protons
• Carry positive charge
• Mass = 1 amu
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18
Q

Electrons in orbitals within electron cloud

A

• Electrons in orbitals within electron cloud
– Carry negative charge
– 1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)
– Number of protons and electrons always
equal

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19
Q

Different elements contain different

numbers of subatomic particles

A

Hydrogen has 1 proton, 0 neutrons, and 1
electron
– Lithium has 3 protons, 4 neutrons, and 3
electrons

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20
Q

Atomic number

A

Number of protons in
nucleus
– Written as subscript to left of atomic symbol Ex. 3Li

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21
Q

Mass number

A 
Total number of protons and neutrons in 
nucleus
• Total mass of atom
– Written as superscript to left of atomic symbol
• Ex. 7Li
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22
Q

• Isotopes

A

– Structural variations of atoms
– Differ in the number of neutrons they contain
– Atomic numbers same; mass numbers
different

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23
Q

Atomic weight

A

Average of mass numbers (relative weights)

of all isotopes of an atom

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24
Q

Radioisotopes - Heavy isotopes decompose to more stable forms

A

Spontaneous decay called radioactivity
– Similar to tiny explosion
– Can transform to different element
Can be detected with scanners

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25
Q

Radioisotopes

A 
Valuable tools for biological research and 
medicine
– Share same chemistry as their stable isotopes
– Most used for diagnosis
• All damage living tissue
– Some used to destroy localized cancers
– Radon from uranium decay causes lung 
cancer
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26
Q

Molecule

A

• Two or more atoms bonded together (e.g., H2 or
C6H12O6
)
• Smallest particle of a compound with specific
characteristics of the compound

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27
Q

Compound

A

Two or more different kinds of atoms bonded
together (e.g., C6H12O6
, but not H2)

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28
Q

Three types of mixtures

A

– Solutions
– Colloids
– Suspensions

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29
Q

Solvent

A

– Substance present in greatest amount

– Usually a liquid; usually water

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30
Q

Solute

A

– Present in smaller amounts
• Ex. If glucose is dissolved in blood, glucose is
solute; blood is solvent

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31
Q

Colloids

A

Heterogeneous mixtures, e.g., cytosol
– Large solute particles do not settle out
– Some undergo sol-gel transformations
• e.g., cytosol during cell division

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32
Q

Suspensions

A

Heterogeneous mixtures, e.g., blood

– Large, visible solutes settle out

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33
Q

• Mixtures

A

No chemical bonding between components
– Can be separated by physical means, such as
straining or filtering
– Heterogeneous or homogeneous

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34
Q

Compounds

A

Chemical bonding between components
– Can be separated only by breaking bonds
– All are homogeneous

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35
Q

• Chemical bonds

A

are energy relationships

between electrons of reacting atoms

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36
Q

• Electrons in valence shell (outermost electron

shell)

A

Have most potential energy

– Are chemically reactive electrons

37
Q

Chemically Reactive Elements

A

• Valence shell not full
• Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
(form bonds) with other atoms to achieve
stability

38
Q

Types of Chemical Bonds

A

– Ionic bonds
– Covalent bonds
– Hydrogen bonds

39
Q

Ions

A

Atom gains or loses electrons and becomes charged
• # Protons ≠ # Electrons
• Transfer of valence shell electrons from one
atom to another forms ions
– One becomes an anion (negative charge)
• Atom that gained one or more electrons
– One becomes a cation (positive charge)
• Atom that lost one or more electrons
• Attraction of opposite charges results in an ionic
bond

40
Q

Ionic Compounds

A

• Most ionic compounds are salts
– When dry salts form crystals instead of
individual molecules
– Example is NaCl (sodium chloride)

41
Q

Covalent Bonds

A

• Formed by sharing of two or more valence
shell electrons
• Allows each atom to fill its valence shell at
least part of the time

42
Q

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

A

Electrons shared equally
• Produces electrically balanced, nonpolar
molecules such as CO2

43
Q

Polar Covalent Bonds

A 
• Unequal sharing of electrons produces 
polar (AKA dipole) molecules such as 
H2O
– Atoms in bond have different electronattracting abilities 
• Small atoms with six or seven valence 
shell electrons are electronegative,
e.g., oxygen
– Strong electron-attracting ability
• Most atoms with one or two valence shell 
electrons are electropositive,
e.g., sodium
44
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A

Attractive force between electropositive
hydrogen of one molecule and an
electronegative atom of another molecule
– Not true bond
– Common between dipoles such as water
– Also act as intramolecular bonds, holding a
large molecule in a three-dimensional shape

45
Q

Chemical Reactions

A

• Occur when chemical bonds are formed,
rearranged, or broken
• Represented as chemical equations using
molecular formulas
– Subscript indicates atoms joined by bonds
– Prefix denotes number of unjoined atoms or
molecules
• Chemical equations contain
– Reactants
• Number and kind of reacting substances
– Chemical composition of the product(s)
– Relative proportion of each reactant and product in
balanced equations

46
Q

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

A
  • Synthesis (combination) reactions
  • Decomposition reactions
  • Exchange reactions
47
Q

Decomposition Reactions

A 
AB  A + B
– Molecule is broken down into smaller 
molecules or its constituent atoms
• Reverse of synthesis reactions
– Involve breaking of bonds
– Catabolic
48
Q

Exchange Reactions

A

AB + C  AC + B
– Also called displacement reactions
– Involve both synthesis and decomposition
– Bonds are both made and broke

49
Q

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

A

Are decomposition reactions
– Reactions in which food fuels are broken down for
energy
• Are also exchange reactions because electrons
are exchanged between reactants
– Electron donors lose electrons and are oxidized
– Electron acceptors receive electrons and become
reduced
• C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
• Glucose is oxidized; oxygen molecule is reduced

50
Q

Exergonic reactions

A

net release of energy
• Products have less potential energy than reactants
• Catabolic and oxidative reactions

51
Q

Endergonic reactions

A 
net absorption of 
energy
• Products have more potential energy than 
reactants
• Anabolic reactions
52
Q

Rate of Chemical Reactions

A 
Affected by
–  Temperature   Rate
–  Concentration of reactant   Rate 
–  Particle size   Rate 
– Catalysts:  Rate without being chemically 
changed or part of product
• Enzymes are biological catalysts
53
Q

Biochemistry

A

Study of chemical composition and
reactions of living matter
• All chemicals either organic or inorganic

54
Q

• Inorganic compounds

A

Water, salts, and many acids and bases

• Do not contain carbon

55
Q

Organic compounds

A

Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic
acids
• Contain carbon, usually large, and are
covalently bonded

56
Q

Polar solvent properties of water

A

– Dissolves and dissociates ionic substances
– Forms hydration layers around large charged
molecules, e.g., proteins (colloid formation)
– Body’s major transport medium

57
Q

Salts

A

Ionic compounds that dissociate into ions in
water
– Ions (electrolytes) conduct electrical currents in
solution
– Ions play specialized roles in body functions (e.g.,
sodium, potassium, calcium, and iron)
– Ionic balance vital for homeostasis
• Contain cations other than H+ and anions other
than OH–
• Common salts in body
– NaCl, CaCO3
, KCl, calcium phosphates

58
Q

Acids

A 
s are proton donors
– Release H+
(a bare proton) in solution
– HCl  H+ + Cl– 
is a electrolyte
59
Q

Bases

A 
proton acceptors
– Take up H+
from solution
• NaOH  Na+ + OH–
– OH– accepts an available proton (H+
)
– OH– + H+  H2O
electrolyte
60
Q

Important acids

A

– HCl, HC2H3O2

(HAc), and H2CO

61
Q

• Important bases

A

– Bicarbonate ion (HCO3–) and ammonia (NH3

62
Q

pH: Acid-base Concentration

A 
– Relative free [H+
] of a solution measured on 
pH scale
– As free [H+
] increases, acidity increases
• [OH–
] decreases as [H+
] increases 
• pH decreases
– As free [H+
] decreases alkalinity increases
• [OH–
] increases as [H+
] decreases
• pH increases
63
Q

pH: Acid-base Concentration

A 
Acidic solutions 
  [H+
],  pH 
– Acidic pH: 0–6.99
• Neutral solutions
– Equal numbers of H+ and OH–
– All neutral solutions are pH 7
– Pure water is pH neutral
• pH of pure water = pH 7: [H+
] = 10–7 m
• Alkaline (basic) solutions 
  [H+
],  pH
– Alkaline pH: 7.01–14
64
Q

Buffers

A

Acidity reflects only free H+
in solution
– Not those bound to anions
• Buffers resist abrupt and large swings in pH
– Release hydrogen ions if pH rises
– Bind hydrogen ions if pH falls
• Convert strong (completely dissociated) acids or bases
into weak (slightly dissociated) ones
• Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system (important buffer
system of blood):

65
Q

Organic Compounds

A

Molecules that contain carbon
– Except CO2 and CO, which are considered
inorganic
– Carbon is electroneutral
• Shares electrons; never gains or loses them
• Forms four covalent bonds with other elements
• Unique to living systems
• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids
Many are polymers
– Chains of similar units called monomers
(building blocks)
• Synthesized by dehydration synthesis
• Broken down by hydrolysis reactions

66
Q

Carbohydrates

A 
• Sugars and starches
• Polymers
• Contain C, H, and O [(CH20)n
]
• Three classes
– Monosaccharides – one sugar
– Disaccharides – two sugars
– Polysaccharides – many sugars
Functions of carbohydrates
– Major source of cellular fuel (e.g., glucose)
– Structural molecules (e.g., ribose sugar in 
RNA)
67
Q

Monosaccharides

A 
Simple sugars containing three to seven C 
atoms
• (CH20)n – general formula; n = # C atoms
• Monomers of carbohydrates
• Important monosaccharides
– Pentose sugars
• Ribose and deoxyribose
– Hexose sugars
• Glucose (blood sugar)
68
Q

Disaccharides

A

Double sugars
• Too large to pass through cell membranes
• Important disaccharides
– Sucrose, maltose, lactose

69
Q

Polysaccharides

A

• Polymers of monosaccharides
• Important polysaccharides
– Starch and glycogen
• Not very soluble

70
Q

Lipids

A 
Contain C, H, O (less than in 
carbohydrates), and sometimes P
• Insoluble in water
• Main types:
– Neutral fats or triglycerides
– Phospholipids
– Steroids
– Eicosanoids
71
Q

Neutral Fats or Triglycerides

A

• Called fats when solid and oils when liquid
• Composed of three fatty acids bonded to A
glycerol molecule
• Main functions
– Energy storage
– Insulation
– Protection

72
Q

Saturation of Fatty Acids

A 
Saturated fatty acids
– Single covalent bonds between C atoms
• Maximum number of H atoms
– Solid animal fats, e.g., butter
• Unsaturated fatty acids
– One or more double bonds between C atoms
• Reduced number of H atoms 
– Plant oils, e.g., olive oil
– “Heart healthy”
• Trans fats – modified oils – unhealthy
• Omega-3 fatty acids – “heart healthy”
73
Q

Phospholipids

A

Modified triglycerides:
– Glycerol + two fatty acids and A phosphorus
(P) - containing group
• “Head” and “tail” regions have different
properties
• Important in cell membrane structure

74
Q

Steroids

A

Steroids—interlocking four-ring structure
• Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones,
and bile salts
• Most important steroid
– Cholesterol
• Important in cell membranes, vitamin D synthesis,
steroid hormones, and bile salts

75
Q

Eicosanoids

A

• Many different ones
• Derived from a fatty acid (arachidonic
acid) in cell membranes
• Most important eicosanoid
– Prostaglandins
• Role in blood clotting, control of blood pressure,
inflammation, and labor contractions

76
Q

Proteins

A

Contain C, H, O, N, and sometimes S and P
• Proteins are polymers
• Amino acids (20 types) are the monomers in
proteins
– Joined by covalent bonds called peptide bonds
– Contain amine group and acid group
– Can act as either acid or base
– All identical except for “R group” (in green on figure)

77
Q

Fibrous (structural) proteins

A

Strandlike, water-insoluble, and stable
– Most have tertiary or quaternary structure (3-D)
– Provide mechanical support and tensile
strength
– Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen (single
most abundant protein in body), and certain
contractile fibers

78
Q

Globular (functional) proteins

A

Compact, spherical, water-soluble and
sensitive to environmental changes
– Tertiary or quaternary structure (3-D)
– Specific functional regions (active sites)
– Examples: antibodies, hormones, molecular
chaperones, and enzymes

79
Q

Protein Denaturation

A

Globular proteins unfold and lose functional,
3-D shape
• Active sites destroyed
– Can be cause by decreased pH or increased
temperature
• Usually reversible if normal conditions
restored
• Irreversible if changes extreme
– e.g., cooking an egg

80
Q

Molecular Chaperones

A 
Globular proteins
• Ensure quick, accurate folding and 
association of other proteins 
• Prevent incorrect folding
• Assist translocation of proteins and ions 
across membranes
• Promote breakdown of damaged or 
denatured proteins
• Help trigger the immune response
81
Q

• Stress proteins

A

– Molecular chaperones produced in response
to stressful stimuli, e.g., O2 deprivation
– Important to cell function during stress
– Can delay aging by patching up damaged
proteins and refolding them

82
Q

Enzymes

A

Globular proteins that act as biological
catalysts
• Regulate and increase speed of chemical
reactions
– Lower the activation energy, increase the
speed of a reaction (millions of reactions per
minute!)

83
Q

Characteristics of Enzymes

A 
• Some functional enzymes (holoenzymes)
consist of two parts 
– Apoenzyme (protein portion) 
– Cofactor (metal ion) or coenzyme (organic 
molecule often a vitamin)
• Enzymes are specific
– Act on specific substrate
• Usually end in -ase
• Often named for the reaction they catalyze
– Hydrolases, oxidases
84
Q

Nucleic Acids

A 
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and 
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
– Largest molecules in the body
• Contain C, O, H, N, and P
• Polymers
– Monomer = nucleotide
• Composed of nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and 
a phosphate group
85
Q

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

A

Utilizes four nitrogen bases:
– Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
– Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)
– Base-pair rule – each base pairs with its
complementary base
• A always pairs with T; G always pairs with C
• Double-stranded helical molecule (double helix)
in the cell nucleus
• Pentose sugar is deoxyribose
• Provides instructions for protein synthesis
• Replicates before cell division ensuring genetic
continuity

86
Q

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A

Four bases:
– Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and
Uracil (U)
• Pentose sugar is ribose
• Single-stranded molecule mostly active
outside the nucleus
• Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA
orders for protein synthesis
– Messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
(tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

87
Q

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

A

• Chemical energy in glucose captured in
this important molecule
• Directly powers chemical reactions in cells
• Energy form immediately useable by all
body cells
• Structure of ATP
– Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with two
additional phosphate group

88
Q

• Phosphorylation

A

Terminal phosphates are enzymatically
transferred to and energize other molecules
– Such “primed” molecules perform cellular
work (life processes) using the phosphate
bond energy

Human A&P (13 decks)

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