CH1

Question 1

Define Psychology

Answer 1

Psychology – the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour

Question 2

Define Empirical Evidence

Answer 2

Empirical evidence - information obtained through direct and systematic observation or experimentation

Question 3

Define Non-science ideas

Answer 3

Non-science - ideas formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods or principles

Question 4

Define Pseudoscience

Answer 4

Pseudoscience - beliefs, theories, and practices that are mistakenly regarded as, or claim to be scientific, but are not because they do not use the methods of science

Question 5

What is the scientific method/what does it involve

Answer 5

The Scientific Method - procedure used to obtain knowledge that involves hypothesis formulation, testing, and retesting through processes of experimentation, observation, measurement, and recording

Question 6

Define Model

Answer 6

Model - representation of a concept, process, or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand

Question 7

Define Theory

Answer 7

Theory - proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about relationships between concepts

Question 8

Aim vs hypothesis

Answer 8

Aim - statement outlining the purpose of an investigation
Hypothesis - testable prediction about the outcome of an investigation

Question 9

5 types of variable (e.g., IV, DV, EV, CV, Controlled etc) and the VCAA dot points p.t 1 (IV,DV, controlled)

Answer 9

Controlled:
- Variables that a researcher holds constant (controls) in an investigation.
- They are not part of an investigation itself
- Kept constant to ensure the manipulation of the independent variable causes the changes in the dependent variable.
Independent:
- The variable for which quantities are manipulated (controlled, selected or changed) by the researcher, and the variable that is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable
- Independent variables are plotted on the horizontal axis of a graph.
Dependent:
- The variable the researcher measures, after selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent variable
- Dependent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of a graph.

Question 10

5 types of variable (e.g., IV, DV, EV, CV, Controlled etc) and the VCAA dot points p.t 2 (EV, CV)

Answer 10

Extraneous:
- Any variable that is not the independent variable but may affect the results (dependent variable) of the research.
- These variables should be controlled (kept constant), or at least monitored, in order that they do not threaten the internal validity of the investigation results by becoming a confounding variable.
Confounding:
- Variables that have affected the results (dependent variable), apart from the independent variable
- A confounding variable may have been an extraneous variable that has not been controlled for, or it can be a type of variable that cannot be controlled for
- These variables interfere with the internal validity of the investigation by providing alternative explanations for the investigation results.

Question 11

What are controlled experiments and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 11

• Controlled Experiments - An experimental investigation of the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable, controlling all other variables. This may include the use of control groups.
  o Advantages:
   Allows researchers to infer causal relationships between, and draw conclusions about, specific variables.
   Provides researchers with a high level of control over conditions and variables.
   Follows a strictly controlled procedure so it can be repeated to check results.
   Allows researchers to test hypotheses more quickly than in real-world settings.
   Allows for prevention of extraneous and confounding variables
  o Disadvantages:
   As they are often conducted in a laboratory or highly controlled setting, the setting may not be reflective of real life. This may affect participants’ responses.
   Because experiments involve human control and manipulation of variables, they are open to researcher error or ‘experimenter effects’.
   It can be time-consuming and expensive to manipulate and measure certain variables.
   Confounding or extraneous variables can still occur

Question 12

What are case studies and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 12

• Case Study - An investigation of a particular activity, behaviour, event or problem that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world. Case studies can take various forms: historical, involving the analysis of causes and consequences, and discussion of knowledge learned from the situation; a real situation or a role-play of an imagined situation, where plausible recommendations are to be made; or problem-solving, where developing a new design, methodology or method is required.
  o Advantages:
   Provides highly detailed, rich information about a particular phenomenon under study. This can also provide new knowledge about other phenomena.
   Allows phenomena, including rare phenomena, to be examined in depth, which can provide ideas for future studies and hypotheses.
   Can incorporate other scientific methodologies to gain data.
  o Disadvantages:
   Results cannot be generalised (applied) to a wider population
   Subject to researcher bias and errors, as often one or only a few researchers.
   It can be difficult to draw conclusions about cause and effect.
   Case studies can be time-consuming.

Question 13

What are correlational studies and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 13

• Correlational Study - Planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled to understand the relationships/associations that exist between variables, to identify which factors may be of greater importance and to make predictions.
  o Advantages:
   There is no manipulation of variables required.
   Can provide ideas for future hypotheses and research, as well as form the basis for theories.
   Can provide information about the relationships and associations between variables.
   Can be conducted in naturalistic settings, so findings are applicable to real work
  o Disadvantages:
   Their results cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect.
   Can be subject to the influence of extraneous variables

Question 14

What are classification and identification and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 14

• Classification and Identification - Classification is the arrangement of phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets, whereas identification is a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set.
  o Advantages:
   Provides a common language to communicate about scientific phenomena.
   Helps to simplify, explain and describe complex phenomena.
   Allows scientists to form more targeted solutions or interventions to real problems.
   Allows researchers to form theories and hypotheses about labelled phenomena.
  o Disadvantages:
   It can over-simplify reality.
   Labels and language can be inaccurate and create bias

Question 15

What is fieldwork and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 15

• Fieldwork - Based on inquiry or the investigation of an issue, fieldwork involves observing and interacting with a selected environment beyond the classroom, usually to determine correlation, rather than a causal relationship. It may be conducted through a range of methods, including direct qualitative and/or quantitative observations and sampling, participant observation, qualitative interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and yarning circles
  o Advantages:
   It can be conducted in naturalistic settings, so findings are more applicable to the real world. This means it has high ecological validity.
   Fieldwork provides rich, detailed data.
   Fieldwork can use a broad range of different methodologies depending on the object of inquiry and resourcing needs.
   As it can occur over a longer time period, it can uncover information that may not be immediately obvious to researchers and participants
  o Disadvantages:
   It can be time-consuming and expensive to conduct and then record data.
   It can generally not inform conclusions about cause and effect.
   Due to lengthy procedures in a real-world setting, fieldwork is difficult to replicate in order to verify results.
   It is difficult to control the environment and extraneous variables, as researchers do not precisely manipulate variables.

Question 16

What is Literature Review and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 16

• Literature Review - Involves the collation and analysis of secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data
  o Advantages:
   It provides background information on specific phenomena that can inform new studies and hypotheses.
   It allows researchers to understand the current ‘state of play’ for a specific object of inquiry and answer questions.
   Through information synthesis, it may uncover patterns of knowledge or gaps of knowledge.
  o Disadvantages:
   It may be time-consuming.
   It may be difficult to do if little research has been done on a topic.

Question 17

What is Modelling and list 2 advantages and 1 disadvantage

Answer 17

• Modelling - Involves the construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small- or large-scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand or simulate the system.
  o Advantages:
   It can provide explanatory tools.
   Physical modelling allows researchers to know, understand and problem solve.
   Conceptual modelling can simplify and explain certain phenomena
  o Disadvantages:
   As models are often used to simplify and communicate ideas, they may over-simplify or inaccurately represent reality

Question 18

What is Product, Process or System Development and list 1 advantage and disadvantage

Answer 18

• Product, Process or System Development - Design or evaluation of an artefact, process or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures.
  o Advantages:
   It creates products, processes and systems that may meet a human need
  o Disadvantages:
   It can be expensive and time-consuming

Question 19

What is simulation and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 19

• Simulation – A process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system. The modelling and manipulation of variables in a real system is useful because often the variables cannot be controlled as the system may be too complex, too large or small, too fast or slow, not accessible or too dangerous.
  o Advantages:
   Simulation provides insight into potential circumstances and events.
   It allows researchers to view micro, hard-to see phenomena, such as neurons, in detail.
   It allows researchers to see events that might otherwise be too time-consuming, dangerous or impractical to see in reality
  o Disadvantages:
   It can be time-consuming and expensive.
   It is subject to programming and human error so may not always be an accurate prediction or reflection of reality

Question 20

What is a within-subjects design? List 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

Answer 20

• Within Subjects – an experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition.
  o Advantages:
   Ensures that the results of the experiment are more likely due to the manipulation of the independent variable than any differences between participants that would occur if they were in separate groups.
   Less people are needed because each participant completes each experimental condition.
   Good for real-world settings and phenomena, such as the impact of certain teaching methods on learning (e.g. this could be assessed before with a pre-test, and after with a post-test when a teaching method is used on the same students)
  o Disadvantages:
   It can produce order effects; i.e. completing one experimental condition first and then the other/s may influence how participants perform in the latter condition/s (e.g. due to fatigue, practice, participants’ expectations, and so on).
   In addition, a participant dropping out of a within subjects experiment has a greater impact on the study as the experimenter loses two data points instead of one

Question 21

What is a between-subjects design? List 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

Answer 21

• Between Subjects – an experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition.
  o Advantages:
   May be less time-consuming than within-subjects design as different participants can complete the different conditions simultaneously and procedures do not need to be repeated.
   Does not create order effects
  o Disadvantages:
   May require more participants than a within-subjects design.
   Differences between participants (participant differences) across groups can affect results

Question 22

What is a mixed design? List 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

Answer 22

• Mixed Design – an experimental design which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects designs.
  o Advantages:
   Allows experimenters to compare results both across experimental conditions and across individuals/participants/ groups over time.
   Allows multiple experimental conditions to be compared to a baseline control group.
  o Disadvantages:
   Can be more costly and time consuming to plan, conduct, and then analyse results.
   Demanding for researchers and assistants to be across multiple methods

Question 23

List the types of fieldwork and define them

Answer 23

• Direct Observation – researcher watches and listens to the participants of a study, with no direct intervention and involvement, or manipulation of variables.
• Qualitative Interviews – involves a researcher asking questions to gather in-depth information about a particular topic, theme, or idea.
  o The interview may be structured (or semi-structured), but the questions are generally open ended so that participants can provide lengthier, more detailed answers.
  o This provides rich, qualitative data for the researcher to analyse
• Questionnaires – Questionnaires are a set of questions or prompts given to participants to answer digitally or with pen and paper.
  o Questions may be open-ended, wherein participants can freely answer a question, or closed, wherein participants select an answer from a given set of responses.
  o The answers of respondents are then analysed by a researcher
• Focus Groups – Qualitative research method which involves a researcher conducting a discussion with a small group of people on a specific topic.
  o Groups are formed on the basis of some shared characteristics relevant to the discussion.
  o Participants’ responses and interactions with each other are recorded to form rich, qualitative data
• Yarning Circles – traditional approach to group discussion similarly to focus groups in Aboriginal cultures.
  o Enables a more culturally appropriate approach to research and data collection when working with Aboriginal People.
  o Compared to focus groups, however emphasize lack of judgement, letting go of preconceived notions, and key cultural principles such as respect, inclusion, and sharing.
  o The role of the researcher is to be active in the discussion rather than neutral. The focus is not to obtain knowledge or information for themselves, but to contribute information so that they can produce new knowledge for all members

Question 24

sample vs population

Answer 24

Sample - a subset of the research population who participate in a study.
Population - the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn.

Question 25

What is convenience sampling and list 1 advantage and disadvantage

Answer 25

• Convenience Sampling - any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach
  o Advantages
   The most time-effective and can be cost-effective
  o Disadvantages
   The most likely to produce an unrepresentative sample, thereby making it harder for researchers to generalise results to the population.

Question 26

What is random sampling and list 2 advantages and disadvantages

Answer 26

• Random Sampling - any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected
  o Advantages
   The sample generated can be more representative than convenience sampling.
   It reduces experimenter bias in selecting participants.
   It can make a fairly representative sample if the sample is large.
  o Disadvantages
   It may be time-consuming to ensure every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
   It may not create an entirely representative sample when the sample is small.

Question 27

What is stratified sampling and list 1 advantage and disadvantage

Answer 27

• Stratified Sampling - any sampling technique that involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata (subgroups) are proportionally represented in the sample
  o Advantages
   The most likely to produce a representative sample
  o Disadvantages
   It can be time-consuming and expensive.
   It can be demanding on the researcher to select the most appropriate strata to account for.

Question 28

List the 5 major EV and define them

Answer 28

Participant-related Variables – characteristics of a study’s participants that may affect the results
Order Effects - the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour
Experimenter Effect – when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment
Situational Variables – any environmental factor that may affect the dependent variable
Demand Characteristics - cues in an experiment that may signal to a participant the intention of the study and influence their behaviour

Question 29

what is counter balancing

Answer 29

Counterbalancing - a method to reduce order effects that involves ordering experimental conditions in a certain way

Question 30

single-blind procedure vs double-blind procedure

Answer 30

Single-Blind Procedures – a procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental group or condition they have been allocated to
Double-Blind Procedures - a procedure in which both participants and the experimenter do not know which conditions or groups participants are allocated to

Question 31

primary vs secondary data

Answer 31

Primary Data - collected first-hand by a researcher
Secondary Data - sourced from someone else’s prior research

Question 32

Qualitative vs Quantitative Data

Answer 32

Quantitative Data - that is expressed numerically
Qualitative Data - that is expressed non-numerically

Question 33

Subjective vs Objective data

Answer 33

Objective Data - factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion
Subjective Data - data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation

Question 34

What is the mean, median and mode?

Answer 34

o Mean - numerical average of a data set
o Median - the middle value in a data set ordered from lowest to highest
o Mode - most frequently occurring value in a data set

Question 35

What is standard deviation

Answer 35

Standard Deviation - expressed as a value that describes the spread of data around the mean

Question 36

Which axis is the IV and DV on a graph?

Answer 36

y-axis is DV
x-axis is IV

Question 37

What is accuracy

Answer 37

Accuracy - how close it is to the true value of the quantity being measured.
- Accuracy is not quantifiable
- Measurement values may be described as more accurate or less accurate

Question 38

What is precision

Answer 38

Precision - Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other.
- Precision gives no indication of how close the measurements are to the true value and is therefore a separate consideration to accuracy

Question 39

What is the true value

Answer 39

True Value - The value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly

Question 40

What are systematic errors? What do they affect? What do they occur from? How can they be reduced?

Answer 40

Systematic Errors - Errors cause readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount or by the same proportion each time a measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the true value.
- Affects the accuracy of a measurement.
- Occur From:
o Observational error
o Imperfect instrument calibration
o Environmental interference
- Reduced By:
o The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by repeating those measurements.
o Most systematic errors can be reduced by being familiar with the limitations of instruments and experience with their correct use

Question 41

What are random errors? What do they affect? What do they occur from? How can they be reduced?

Answer 41

Random Errors - Errors that are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread of readings.
- Affects the precision of a measurement and are present in all measurements except for measurements involving counting.
- Occur From:
o Limitations of instruments
o Environmental factors
o Slight variations in procedures
- Reduced By:
o Making more or repeated measurements.
o Calculating a new mean
o Increasing sample size
o Refining the measurement method or technique.

Question 42

define uncertainty

Answer 42

Uncertainty - reflects the lack of exact knowledge of the value of the quantity being measured.

Question 43

repeatability vs reproducability

Answer 43

Repeatability - The closeness of the agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under the same conditions of measurement.
Reproducibility - The closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under changed conditions of measurement.
- Scientific findings can be considered in terms of whether they are replicable or irreplicable, where irreplicable results may lack credibility

Question 44

define validity and give VCAA examples

Answer 44

Validity - the extent to which psychological tools and investigations truly support their findings or conclusions.
- Examples:
o A measurement is said to be valid if it measures what it is supposed to be measuring
o A psychological investigation is said to be valid if the results among the study participants represent true findings among similar individuals outside of a study.

Question 45

define internal validity. list the indication and 2 considerations

Answer 45

• Internal validity - investigates what it sets out and/or claims to investigate.
  o Indication:
   Lack of internal validity implies that the results of the study deviate from the truth and therefore no conclusions can be drawn.
  o Considerations:
   Appropriateness of the investigation design
   Sampling and allocation techniques
   Impact of extraneous and confounding variables on the investigation results
   If a study is not internally valid, external validity is irrelevant

Question 46

define external validity. list the indication and a improvment

Answer 46

• External validity - results of the research can be applied to similar individuals in a different setting.
  o Indication:
   Lack of external validity implies that the results of the research may not apply to individuals who are different from the study population.
  o Improvements:
   Using broad inclusion criteria and sampling techniques that result in a study population more closely resembling the overall general human population

Question 47

Conclusion Checklist – APRA -> APDESS

Answer 47

Conclusion Checklist – APRA -> APDESS
- Aim
- Hypothesis/Prediction
- Data Findings
- Was there accuracy, precision, validity, reliability, reproducibility, repeatability, uncertainty or errors? Evaluate the experiment.
- Extraneous variables to account for next time and/or related topics to aim to study further
- Support or Reject hypothesis

Question 48

List and describe the ethical concepts -(full definitions shouldn’t be necessary

Answer 48

• Beneficence - The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action
• Integrity - The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding
• Justice - The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action
• Non-maleficence - Involves avoiding the causations of harm; however, as a position or course of action may involve some degree of harm, the concept of non-maleficence implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action.
• Respect - Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective; consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary

Question 49

List and describe the ethical guidelines-(full definitions shouldn’t be necessary

Answer 49

• Confidentiality - The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements
• Informed Consent Procedures - Ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study. Voluntary written consent should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this consent, then a parent or legal guardian should provide this
• Use of Deception - Is only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour while participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment. The use of deception is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary
• Debriefing - Ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions. Any participant questions are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study. Debriefing is essential for all studies that involve deception
• Voluntary Participation - Ensures that there is no coercion of or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved
• Withdrawal Rights - Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty. This may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study has been completed

Question 50

List and define the 4 factors that affect ethics

Answer 50

These factors play a part in what is considered ethical
Sociocultural Factors - environmental conditions that impact the practices, beliefs, social norms, and expectations of individuals or groups.
- When evaluating a psychological issue, considering the relevance of people’s religious beliefs might be a sociocultural factor that requires consideration
Economic Factors - financial factors, such as the income of individuals, as well as financial characteristics of a study, such as the funding of the research.
Legal Factors - how the law and legal systems influence individuals, groups, and organisations.
- When examining a psychological issue, one might consider whether any laws were broken.
- When designing research, experimenters should ensure they are following relevant legislation.
Political Factors - environmental conditions that impact the beliefs and actions of groups and individuals, including political climate, government policies and decisions, and international relations.