CH03 Learning and Memory

Question 1

define learning

Answer 1

learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience

Question 2

define behavioural learning theories

Answer 2

behavioural learning theories are the perspectives on learning that assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events

Question 3

define classical conditioning

Answer 3

classical conditioning is the learning that occurs when a stimulus eliciting a response is pared with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own but will cause a similar response over time because of its association with the first stimulus

Question 4

define unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Answer 4

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus naturally capable of causing a response

Question 5

define conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 5

conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that causes a response because of a learned association

Question 6

defined a conditioned response (CR)

Answer 6

conditioned response (CR) a new or modified response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Question 7

define associative learning

Answer 7

associative learning is learning that occurs when the consumer makes simple associations between stimuli, without more complex cognitive process taking place

Question 8

define extinction

Answer 8

extinction is the process whereby a learned connection between a stimulus and a response is eroded so that the response is no longer reinforced

Question 9

define stimulus generalization

Answer 9

stimulus generalization is the process that occurs when the behaviour caused by a reaction to one stimulus occurs in the presences of other, similar stimuli

Question 10

define stimulus discrimination

Answer 10

stimulus discrimination is the process that occurs when behaviour caused by two stimuli is different, as when consumers learn to differentiate a brand from its competitors

Question 11

define instrumental conditioning (aka operant conditioning)

Answer 11

instrumental conditioning (aka operant conditioning) is the process by which the individual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes

Question 12

define shaping

Answer 12

shaping is the learning of desired behaviour over time by rewarding intermediate actions until the final result is obtained

Question 13

define positive reinforcement

Answer 13

positive reinforcement is the process whereby rewards provided by the environment strengthen responses to stimuli

Question 14

define negative reinforcement

Answer 14

negative reinforcement is the process by removing stimulus in away that increases a desired responses

Question 15

define punishment

Answer 15

punishment is the learning that occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events

Question 16

define the 4 types of learning schedules

Answer 16

1. fixed-ratio reinforcement (reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses)
2. variable-ration reinforcement (the behaviour of a person is reinforced after a certain number of responses, but they do not know how many responses is required)
3. fixed-internal reinforcement (after a specified time period has passed, the first response that is made brings the reward)
4. variable-interval reinforcement (the time that must pass before reinforcement is delivered varies; because the person does not know exactly when to expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent rate)

Question 17

define cognitive learning theory

Answer 17

cognitive learning theory is the perspective on learning that assumes that learning takes place as the result of internal mental processes: people actively use info from the world around them to master their environment and solve problems)

Question 18

define observational learning

Answer 18

observational learning occurs when people watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements others receive for their behaviours

Question 19

define memory

Answer 19

memory involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed

Question 20

define encoding

Answer 20

in the encoding stage, information is entered in a way the system will recognize

Question 21

define storage

Answer 21

in the storage stage, this knowledge is integrated with what is already in memory and “warehoused” until needed

Question 22

define retrieval

Answer 22

during retrieval, the mind accesses the desired information

Question 23

define sensory memory

Answer 23

sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses (this storage is very temporary)

Question 24

define short-term memory

Answer 24

short-term memory also stores information for a limited period of time, and its capacity is limited

Question 25

define chunking

Answer 25

chunking is when the information in one’s short-term memory is stored by combining small pieces into larger ones

Question 26

define long-term memory

Answer 26

long-term memory is the system that allows us to retain information for a long period of time (long-term memory must go through short-term memory first)

Question 27

define elaborative rehearsal

Answer 27

elaborative rehearsal involves thinking about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory

Question 28

define activation models of memory

Answer 28

activation models of memory are approaches to memory stressing different levels of processing that occur and activate some aspects of memory rather than others, depending on the nature of the processing task

Question 29

define knowledge structures

Answer 29

knowledge structures are organized systems of concepts relating to brands, stores, and other concepts

Question 30

define spreading activation

Answer 30

in the context of memory, the notion that energy spreads across nodes of varying levels of abstraction; as one memory node is activated, other nodes associated with it also become activated; meaning thus spreads across the network

Question 31

define a schema

Answer 31

an organized collection of beliefs and feelings represented in a cognitive category

Question 32

define a script

Answer 32

a script is a learned schema containing a sequence of events that an individual expects to occur

Question 33

define analogical leaning

Answer 33

analogical learning is learning that occurs through highlighting similarities between one stimulus and a second stimulus

Question 34

define salience

Answer 34

salience is the prominence or level of activation of a brand in memory

Question 35

define interference

Answer 35

interference is a process whereby additional learned info displaces the earlier info, resulting in memory loss for the item previously learned

Question 36

define nostalgia

Answer 36

nostalgia is a bittersweet emotion where the past is viewed with sadness and longing; many "classic" products appeal to consumers' memories of their younger days

Question 37

define response bias

Answer 37

response bias is a form of contamination in survey research in which some factor, such as the desire to make a good impression on the experimenter, leads respondents to modify their true answers