CH03 Learning and Memory Flashcards
define learning
learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience
define behavioural learning theories
behavioural learning theories are the perspectives on learning that assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events
define classical conditioning
classical conditioning is the learning that occurs when a stimulus eliciting a response is pared with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own but will cause a similar response over time because of its association with the first stimulus
define unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus naturally capable of causing a response
define conditioned stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that causes a response because of a learned association
defined a conditioned response (CR)
conditioned response (CR) a new or modified response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
define associative learning
associative learning is learning that occurs when the consumer makes simple associations between stimuli, without more complex cognitive process taking place
define extinction
extinction is the process whereby a learned connection between a stimulus and a response is eroded so that the response is no longer reinforced
define stimulus generalization
stimulus generalization is the process that occurs when the behaviour caused by a reaction to one stimulus occurs in the presences of other, similar stimuli
define stimulus discrimination
stimulus discrimination is the process that occurs when behaviour caused by two stimuli is different, as when consumers learn to differentiate a brand from its competitors
define instrumental conditioning (aka operant conditioning)
instrumental conditioning (aka operant conditioning) is the process by which the individual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes
define shaping
shaping is the learning of desired behaviour over time by rewarding intermediate actions until the final result is obtained
define positive reinforcement
positive reinforcement is the process whereby rewards provided by the environment strengthen responses to stimuli
define negative reinforcement
negative reinforcement is the process by removing stimulus in away that increases a desired responses
define punishment
punishment is the learning that occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events
define the 4 types of learning schedules
- fixed-ratio reinforcement (reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses)
- variable-ration reinforcement (the behaviour of a person is reinforced after a certain number of responses, but they do not know how many responses is required)
- fixed-internal reinforcement (after a specified time period has passed, the first response that is made brings the reward)
- variable-interval reinforcement (the time that must pass before reinforcement is delivered varies; because the person does not know exactly when to expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent rate)
define cognitive learning theory
cognitive learning theory is the perspective on learning that assumes that learning takes place as the result of internal mental processes: people actively use info from the world around them to master their environment and solve problems)
define observational learning
observational learning occurs when people watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements others receive for their behaviours
define memory
memory involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed
define encoding
in the encoding stage, information is entered in a way the system will recognize
define storage
in the storage stage, this knowledge is integrated with what is already in memory and “warehoused” until needed
define retrieval
during retrieval, the mind accesses the desired information
define sensory memory
sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses (this storage is very temporary)
define short-term memory
short-term memory also stores information for a limited period of time, and its capacity is limited
define chunking
chunking is when the information in one’s short-term memory is stored by combining small pieces into larger ones
define long-term memory
long-term memory is the system that allows us to retain information for a long period of time (long-term memory must go through short-term memory first)
define elaborative rehearsal
elaborative rehearsal involves thinking about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory
define activation models of memory
activation models of memory are approaches to memory stressing different levels of processing that occur and activate some aspects of memory rather than others, depending on the nature of the processing task
define knowledge structures
knowledge structures are organized systems of concepts relating to brands, stores, and other concepts
define spreading activation
in the context of memory, the notion that energy spreads across nodes of varying levels of abstraction; as one memory node is activated, other nodes associated with it also become activated; meaning thus spreads across the network
define a schema
an organized collection of beliefs and feelings represented in a cognitive category
define a script
a script is a learned schema containing a sequence of events that an individual expects to occur
define analogical leaning
analogical learning is learning that occurs through highlighting similarities between one stimulus and a second stimulus
define salience
salience is the prominence or level of activation of a brand in memory
define interference
interference is a process whereby additional learned info displaces the earlier info, resulting in memory loss for the item previously learned
define nostalgia
nostalgia is a bittersweet emotion where the past is viewed with sadness and longing; many “classic” products appeal to consumers’ memories of their younger days
define response bias
response bias is a form of contamination in survey research in which some factor, such as the desire to make a good impression on the experimenter, leads respondents to modify their true answers
