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Psychology II > CH 9 - Thinking and Language > Flashcards

CH 9 - Thinking and Language Flashcards

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1
Q

Cognition

A

Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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2
Q

Conceptual Knowledge

A

Knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties

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3
Q

Concept

A

Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas and people that is used for a variety of cognitive functions (memory, reasoning, etc.)

ex. Mental representation of cats involve appearance, behaviour, and what they are

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4
Q

Categorization

A

Process by which things are placed into groups called categories

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5
Q

Why are categories useful?

A

Categories help us understand individual cases not previously encountered

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6
Q

Prototype theory

A

Theory that membership of a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents a category

Ex. “Stereotypical” abstract representation (bird - think of stereotypical bird)

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7
Q

Typicality ratings

A

Category members rated as most typical are also those that share features with many other members of the category

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8
Q

Normative Accounts of Judgement

A

The way we draw conclusions based on known facts in order to follow certain rules

Ex. Rules of logic, math, stats, scientific method

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9
Q

Descriptive Accounts of Judgement

A

Describes the way people ACTUALLY draw conclusions based on what they know

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10
Q

Essential tenet of all communication

A

What we present 1st changes the way people experience what we present to them next

Ex. Mentioning a large number before affects people’s preception

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11
Q

Anchoring

A

When provided with a potential answer to a question, people use that answer as a reference point in selecting their answer

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12
Q

Heuristics

A

Fast, simple rules people use that often lead to accurate conclusions
- ppl often rely on heuristics in making judgements instead of relying on normative rules
- can lead to erroneous conclusions

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13
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Tendency to make judgements about the frequency or likelihood of an event based on the ease with which evidence or examples come to mind
- determined by ease of coming up with examples from memory
- Accuracy depends on whether the ease of coming up with examples is related to actual frequency

Ex. People believing planes are more dangerous than cars bc of the news reports on it, when in reality driving is far worse

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14
Q

Salience

A

How prominent or emotionally striking something is

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15
Q

Availability entrepreneurs

A

People who capitalize on human tendency to gauge a danger according to how many examples are readily available in our minds

Ex. Journalists, politicians, activists

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16
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

Involves treating examples of a category as homogeneous or possessing essentially same characteristics

The probability that A comes from B can be determined by how well A resembles properties of B

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17
Q

Dilution effects

A

Including non-diagnostic information along with diagnostic information, leads people to rely less on diagnostic information in making judgements

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18
Q

Conjunction rule

A

The probability of 2 events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents
- Bc feminist bank tellers are a subset of all bank tellers, it is always more likely that a person is a bank teller rather than a bank teller AND feminist

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19
Q

Conjunction fallacy

A

The probability of co-occurence of 2 outcomes cannot be greater than the probability of each outcome alone

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20
Q

Covariation detection

A

Perceiving relations between variables

  • If two variables “covary” that means they
    rise and fall together
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21
Q

Confirmation bias (AKA The positive test strategy)

A

Formal - Testing a hypothesis by seeking cases that match it
Informal - The tendency to look only at the cells that confirm your hypothesis

22
Q

Why does confirmation bias happen?

A
  1. Biased memory search
    • Only recruit memories that confirm hypothesis
    • Used in child star example
  2. Biased evidence seeking
    • Observe world looking for information that confirms our hypothesis
    • OR only pay attention to information that confirms our hypothesis
23
Q

Loss Aversion

A

The willingness to take a large risk to avoid losing, but not willing to take a small risk to gain

Not willing to take a small risk to gain, but willing to take a large risk to not lose

Losses hurt around 2.25x more than equivalent gains

24
Q

Framing Effects

A

The way alternatives are worded which influence decision-making
- Specific wording can affect what features we focus our attention on when making decisions

25
Q

Unconscious vs. Conscious Thought

A

Unconscious - very large processing capacity, may make it more effective when making important decisions bc it can take all relevant information into account simultaneously

Conscious - has a low processing capacity, may make it limited when making complex decisions because it cannot take all the relevant information into account

26
Q

What is Language?

A

Involves our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

27
Q

Language is (4 things):

A

Symbolic - sounds and written words to represent objects, events, and ideas

Semantic - meaningful

Structured: Rules governing arrangement of words into phrases and sentences

Generative: limited # of symbols can be combined endlessly to create messages

28
Q

Phonemes

A

Smallest units of speech that can be distinguished perceptually
- most languages use 20-40; English uses ~ 40

29
Q

Morphemes

A

Smalles units of meaning in a language; consisting of root words, prefixes, and suffixes

Ex. cats = 2 morphemes
“s” has meaning beyond letter

30
Q

Grammar

A

Rule system that enables humans to communicate with one another

31
Q

Semantics

A

The meaning of words and word combinations
- involves learning a variety of objects and actions to which words refer

32
Q

Syntax

A

A system of rules for arranging words into sentences

33
Q

Receptive Language

A

What babies can understand
- exceeds their production language
- Ex. By 4-5 months infants attend to their own names but not other names

34
Q

Productive language

A

What babies can produce themselves

  • Prelinguistic communication = newborns communicate thoughts and needs with body posture, gestures, and facial expressions
  • Intentional vocalizations = infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within first couple months
  • Babbling = around 4 months
35
Q

Holophrases

A

One-word expressions to express a complete thought

36
Q

Fast-mapping

A

A process of quickly acquiring and retaining a word after hearing it applied a few times (improves with age)

37
Q

Naming explosion

A

Period of rapid vocab learning occurring between 16-24 months

38
Q

2 kinds of mistakes in learning words:

A
  1. Underextension - applying a word more narrowly than it is usually applied so that the word’s use is restricted to a single object
    Ex. “ball” might only refer to soccer ball but not any other ball
  2. Overextension - Applying a word too broadly
    Ex. naming all farm animals “cow”
39
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

Speaking like a telegram, only including a few essential words
Ex. “give baby ball”

40
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

Argued children do not only learn language through imitation and reinforcement

41
Q

Over-generalization errors

A

Children say things that are incorrect and have not been rewarded for
Ex. I goed, I runned

42
Q

Universality of language

A

The use of language develops in absence of formal instruction
Ex. Deaf children develop sign language

43
Q

Universal grammar

A

Rules that apply to all human languages

44
Q

Nature vs. Nurture

A

Infants’ brains are genetically attuned to language VS. Infants must be taught

45
Q

Learning theory and language acquisition

A

B.F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through operant conditioning: reinforcement and punishment

46
Q

Nativist Theory and language acquisiton

A

The human brain has an innate capacity to learn language. Therefore, language develops as long as it is exposed to it

47
Q

Social Pragmatics Theory

A

Emphasizes the child’s active engagement in learning the language out of a need to communicate
- The child seeks information, memorizes terms, imitates the speech heard from others, and learns
to conceptualize using words as language is acquired

48
Q

Biological contributions to language acquisition (2):

A

Brain (left hemisphere):
- Broca’s Area - Controls ability to use language for expression (speaking words)
- Wernicke’s Area - Responsible for language comprehension (hearing words)

49
Q

Infant-directed speech (“motherese”)

A
  • shorter words
  • higher pitch
  • slower rate
50
Q

Canonical babbling

A

A type of babbling with well-formed syllables that sound like language

51
Q

Expansions

A

Parents enrich versions of the child’s statement

Ex. “Bottle fall” | “Yes, the bottle did fall”

52
Q

Recast

A

Children’s sentences are restated into new grammatical forms

*Child: “Kitty go”
*Parent: “Where is the kitty going?”

Psychology II (4 decks)

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