Ch 8-10 Knowledge Check Flashcards
memory
structures & processes involved in storage & retrieval of info
search metaphor
way of describing processes used in memory using terms & phrases that relate them to looking around in a physical or virtual space
- wax tablet (Plato & Aristotle)
- rooms of a house (Freud)
- library
- purse
- tape recorder
failure of search
the inability to remember something
reconstruction metaphor
describes how we primarily use memory to cobble together a useful response using both what we know & the situation around us
- scientist studying dinosaur skeletons found some bones but must reconstruct some by guessing to fill in the missing parts
encoding
the process of how info is initially learned
storage
the process of maintaining info about an event over a short or long period of time
- memories must be stored as a part of the brain’s physical structure
sensory memory
a system that keeps info translated by senses briefly active in a relatively unaltered form
- iconic (visual) –> George Sperling experiment flashing different rows of letters
- echoic (auditory)
immediate memory
system that actively holds on to a limited amount of info so that it can be manipulated & processed
- representation
- duration
- capacity
representation
type of information that memory system contains
- how info is coded
- inner voice
- inner eye
inner voice
mental experience of hearing yourself talk in your head
- evidence for verbal representation of immediate memory
most compelling evidence for inner voice comes from errors made in immediate recall (someone mishears you spelling your name)
inner eye
mental experience of seeing something using your imagination
- evidence for visual representation in immediate memory
- Stephen Kosslyn experiment (people asked to imagine goose next to elephant; difficult to imagine goose bc it small relative to elephant)
duration
how long a memory system can contain information before it is forgotten
- duration is indefinite with rehearsal
- durations lasts about 3 seconds without rehearsal
capacity
how much information can be held in a memory system
- capacity is what you can rehearse in roughly 2 seconds
memory span
number of items that can be kept active in immediate memory at one time
- 7 +/- 2 pieces of information
chunking
process of arranging material into compact meaningful chunks so they can be more easily rehearsed in immediate memory
working memory model
model of immediate memory that emphasizes its role as a system for manipulating information in consciousness
phonological loop
system within working memory model that temporarily manipulates auditory & verbal info
visuospatial sketchpad
system within working memory model where visual & spatial info is stored & manipulated
central executive
hypothetical portion of working memory model that directs activity of working memory including phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, & flow of info between working & long-term memory
long-term memory
memory systems used to store & recall info over extended periods of time
- believed to be limitless in storage capacity
episodic memory
memory that pertains to specific events/episodes that have been encoded
- about specific context
semantic memory
memories whose contents relate to specific facts & pieces of meaningful info not based on personal experience
- remembering facts
- no context
procedural memory
memories whose contents pertain to how something is done, such as motor skills involved in walking & riding a bicycle
- how a task is completed
elaborative rehearsal
process of actively manipulating information in immediate memory to meaningfully connect it to other info already stored in long-term memory
- demonstrated through levels of processing experiment
deep processing
encoding new info through making meaningful connections to existing knowledge
- encoding info based on meaning
shallow processing
encoding info based on surface-level characteristics
massed practice
repeated exposure to info over a short period of time or without gaps between repetitions
spacing effect
learning is most robust when repeated exposure to info occurs over an extended period of time
adaptive memory
subfield of memory research focused on investigating how brain is designed to learn to remember given evolutionary considerations
retrieval practice
repeated information is more useful for long-term memory than other tasks, such as repeatedly reading the same info
explicit memory
remembering that occurs consciously with intent
implicit memory
remembering that occurs without conscious realization or intent
- completing word stem ELE-
errors of omission
memory errors where info cannot be brought to mind
- transience
- absent-mindedness
- blocking
errors of commission
memory errors when wrong or unwanted info is brought to mind
- misattribution
- suggestibility
- bias
- persistence
transcience
info forgotten info due to interference
retroactive interference
inability to retrieve older info due to influence of new info
proactive interference
inability to retrieve newer info due to influence or old info
absent-mindedness
memories are sometimes unavailable due to inability to encode them
- due to lack of attention or rehearsal
blocking
not enough distinctive cues are present o to retrieve a memory
suggestibility
how memories can be altered by context in which they are remembered to better fit current context
persistence
memory retrieved when not wanted
- PTSD
amnesia
memory loss due to physical damage or problems in the brain
language
grouping of spoken, written, or gestured symbols used to convey info
productivity
the creation of new messages
- humans can connect unrelated info to form new ideas or messages
Skinner’s theory of language
defined speech as verbal behavior
- environmental influences strongly dictate language development
Chomsky theory of language
biological constraints on language development
verbal behavior
language is formed from a series of reinforcements
- ideas from operant conditioning
language acquisition device (LAD)
hypothetical mechanism in the brain responsible for the faculty of language
critical period
theoretical stage in development when it is necessary to receive environmental stimulation in order to promote healthy development
sensitive period
throughout development, neurological system is more malleable during development but is still modifiable later in life with proper environmental stimulation
Broca’s area
region of frontal lobe thought to contribute to motor production of speech
Wernicke’s area
region in temporal lobe thought to contribute to comprehension of language
Broca’s / non-fluent aphasia
difficulty with motor production of language
hemispheric lateralization
certain functions, such as language, are dominantly controlled by one hemisphere of the brain compared to the other
Wernicke’s / aphasia
pt has intact physical production of speech, but communication lacks meaning
prosody
patterns or melody of speech
phoneme
smallest sound unit of language
morpheme
smallest portion of a word that conveys meaning
semantics
meaning of a word
- conceptual knowledge stored in left temporal lobe
prototype
most common form a word assumes when imagined
heuristics
short-cut rules that are applied to solve problems
representative heuristic
problem solver mentally compares something to stored prototype
availability heuristic
make judgements based on how easily instances of the same or related events are to retrieve from our memory
confirmation bias
tendency to pay attention to info consistent with one’s existing beliefs & ignore info that is inconsistent
system 1 thinking
system of thinking based on emotion
system 2 thinking
logical, rational thinking
intelligence
capacity to solve a wide variety of problems through pattern recognition, analogous transfer, & reasoning
-inter = between
-legere = to choose, pick out, read
- intelligence is thought to generate most behavior flexibility
Aristotle’s 2 dimensions of behavior flexibility
- practical wisdom = application of knowledge
- theoretical wisdom = conceptualization of underlying explanations
Sir Francis Galton
measured varied abilities of people using empirical methods to ensure precise assessment
- general cognitive ability, g = intelligence related to how well one uses senses, product of heredity
Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon
focused on behavior measures of intelligence; thought of intelligence in more cognitive terms
- standardized measure of intelligence
- defined as ability to judge, comprehend, & reason well
- direction, adaptation, criticism
direction
ability to know what to do & how to do it
adaptation
ability to create strategies to solve problems
criticism
reflect on problem-solving behavior and identify mistakes
deviation IQ
Wechsler’s compared one’s performance to average score on test for large group of people of same age
- average IQ of any age is 100
- SD is always 15 points
eugenics
argument that human society would be improved by encouraging reproduction of individuals with “desirable” traits & discourage those with “undesirable” traits
- widely discredited as unethical
Raven’s progressive matrices
non-verbal test to measure intelligence
- people presented with pattern or shape must infer which of the options is correct
- useful for testing intelligence so language does not interfere with performance
social Darwinism
misapplication of Darwin’s theory of evolution
- “survival of the fittest”
- Terman thought people of white European ancestry were superior
- his intelligence tests were biased towards white European-Americans
stereotype threat
risk of confirming negative expectations about one’s own social group
Charles Spearman
hypothesized intelligence is made up of 2 levels
- higher-order level of general intelligence, g
-lower-order specialized abilities that are specific to certain subjects or tasks
-measures of general intelligence g, have been found to predict how well people do in college, how much a person earns, chooses, their career, etc.
fluid intelligence
ability to think & solve problems in complex & novel situations in a flexible manner without relying on prior knowledge
crystallized intelligence
ability to solve problems using prior knowledge
cognitive flexibility
ability to change how one is formulating a problem & to redirect one’s attention accordingly
- usually involves breaking out of typical / standard forms of behavior
wisdom paradox
Goldberg’s term for the fact that we seem to get wiser with age even though our intelligence goes down with age
