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psychology > Ch 6-8, 11 > Flashcards

Ch 6-8, 11 Flashcards

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1
Q

memory

A

constructive, adaptive process of learning that has persisted over time; info that has been acquired, stored, & can be retrieved over time

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2
Q

evidence that learning has occurred:

A

recall
recognition
relearning

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3
Q

recall

A

retrieving info not
currently in your conscious awareness, but learned at an earlier time (ex: fill-in-the-blank)

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4
Q

recognition

A

identifying info previously learned (ex: multiple choice)

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5
Q

relearning

A

learning something more quickly & smoothly when revisiting at a later time (ex: studying)

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6
Q

3 key functions of memory

A

encoding
storage
retrieval

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7
Q

encoding

A

how brain commits info to memory; process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
combining info in brain with new incoming info

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8
Q

storage

A

process of maintaining info in memory over time

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9
Q

retrieval

A

process of bringing to mind info that has been previously encoded & stored

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10
Q

for info to be encoded, one must ______

A

attend to it

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11
Q

________ inhibit encoding

A

distractions

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12
Q

semantic encoding

A

deepest level of encoding; process of relating new info in a meaningful way to knowledge already stored in memory

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13
Q

visual imagery encoding

A

process of storing new info by converting it into mental pictures

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14
Q

method of loci

A

memory strategy that uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments to enhance the recall of information

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15
Q

organizational encoding

A

process of categorizing info according to relationships among series of items

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16
Q

encoding strategies

A

mass practice
spacing effect
mnemonics

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17
Q

mass practice

A

studying a lot of info in short amount of time (cramming)

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18
Q

spacing effect

A

learning best when spacing out studying times (studying over multiple hours, days, weeks)

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19
Q

mnemonics

A

method of loci; phrases, acronyms, initializations (ex: PEMDAS, ROYGBIV)

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20
Q

types of memory storage

A

sensory
short-term
long-term
working

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21
Q

sensory memory

A

holds sensory info for a few seconds or less

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22
Q

types of sensory memory

A

iconic
echoic

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23
Q

iconic memory

A

fast-decaying, visual info

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24
Q

echoic memory

A

fast-decaying, auditory info

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25
Q

short-term memory (STM)

A

holds non-sensory info for short amount of time; conscious experience (what one has recently been thinking about)

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26
Q

How long does short-term memory last?

A

15-20 sec; can be kept longer through rehearsal; inhibited by distractions

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27
Q

rehearsal

A

process of repeating info after initial learning to better recall info

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28
Q

memory capacity

A

~7 separate pieces of info (+/- 2)

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29
Q

memory span

A

people often incapable of holding more than 7 pieces of info at once

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30
Q

chunking

A

breaking up things into groups to hold in STM for longer

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31
Q

working memory (WM)

A

conscious, active maintenance of info in STM; limited-capacity system that temporarily stores & processes info

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32
Q

difference between WM and STM:

A

WM actively uses info, STM only holds info

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33
Q

long-term memory (LTM)

A

holds info for extended amount of time (hours, days, weeks, months, years); used whenever CUED to remember previously encoded info
implicit & explicit

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34
Q

LTM memories are often ______ conscious awareness

A

outside of

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35
Q

LTM capacity

A

unlimited

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36
Q

If memories were NOT encoded well, likely to have ______ cues

A

insufficient

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37
Q

Memories more frequently accessed become ______ and _______

A

stronger; easier to recall

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38
Q

presque vu

A

tip of the tongue

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39
Q

Is retrieval of memory promised if info is in LTM? Why or why not?

A

NO, could be bad cues for info

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40
Q

cues

A

external info in the present that help bring up
events from the past (stored info) to the mind; can be specific or broad

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41
Q

context-dependent retrieval

A

Memories strongest when environment is the same as when experience originally happened (ex: encoded on land vs. underwater)

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42
Q

state-dependent retrieval

A

What we learn in one state is more easily recalled when we return to that state (ex: studying while drunk)

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43
Q

serial position

A

Tendency to best recall first & last items in a list

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44
Q

primacy effect

A

tendency to better recall first item in a list

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45
Q

recency effect

A

tendency to better recall most recent/last item in a list

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46
Q

explicit memory

A

conscious, intentional, EFFORTFUL memory retrieval (ex: trying to remember a square root)

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47
Q

implicit memory

A

Using past experiences to
remember info without
consciously recollecting /
being aware; automatic (ex: remembering song lyrics you know)

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48
Q

types of explicit memory

A

semantic memory
episodic memory

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49
Q

types of implicit memory

A

procedural memory
priming

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50
Q

procedural memory

A

Gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice; “muscle memory” (ex: tying shoes, riding a bike)

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51
Q

priming

A

Ability to think of a stimulus as a result of recent exposure; activating certain memory associations

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52
Q

semantic memory

A

Memories for facts &
concepts that make up
our general knowledge of the world (ex: knowing US presidents)

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53
Q

episodic memory

A

Collection of past personal
experiences that occurred at a particular time and place; autobiographical; pertains to specific “episodes” unique to everyone (ex: first day of college)

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54
Q

Memories are ______ and may not always be accurate

A

constructive

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55
Q

Our initial memory, free from suggestion, can be ___________ ___________

A

extremely accurate

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56
Q

Ways in which our memory can be influenced

A

flashbulb memories
post-event misinformation (smash vs. bump)
repeated recall (Ronald Cotton)
hindsight bias

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57
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

inability to remember events & experiences from BEFORE physical brain damage

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58
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to remember events & experiences that happen AFTER physical brain damage; can’t encode NEW info into LTM

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59
Q

Henry Molaison

A

patient who had part of his hippocampus removed to treat his epileptic seizures; resulted in him NOT being able to form new memories (anterograde)

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60
Q

consolidation

A

brain reorganizes new info & integrates it into existing memories; how STM becomes LTM

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61
Q

reconsolidation

A

previously stored memories unstable when later retrieved, need to be restabilized them with another consolidation phase

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62
Q

_____ helps with memory consolidation

A

SLEEP

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63
Q

Without review intervention, learning will be forgotten _______ in the short term

A

rapidly

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64
Q

The curve of forgetting shows that newly learned info is first forgotten _______, then _______

A

rapidly; plateaus

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65
Q

learning

A

Acquisition of new
knowledge & skills
resulting in a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes

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66
Q

habituation

A

Gradual DECREASE in
responding to a stimulus due to repeated (or prolonged) exposure (ex: not noticing the train outside at night after living in Muse for a while)

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67
Q

sensitization

A

gradual INCREASE in responding to a stimulus (ex: being more sensitive to late-night sounds after having a breakin)

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68
Q

classical conditioning

A

stimulus —->response; when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

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69
Q

Which psychologist is most associated with classical conditioning?

A

Ivan Pavlov

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69
Q

Pavlov

A

Russian physiologist who studied digestive processes of animals

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69
Q

stimulus

A

anything in the environment that is detectable, measurable, and evokes response/behavior

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70
Q

unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

stimulus that reliably produces natural response (ex: food)

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71
Q

unconditioned response (UR)

A

unlearned/reflexive, natural response to US (ex: salivating)

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72
Q

neutral stimulus (NS)

A

stimulus that elicits no response prior to conditioning (ex: bell)

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73
Q

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

previously NS that comes to reliably elicit response after being paired with US; after conditioning, CS produces CR without presentation of US (ex: bell)

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74
Q

conditioned response (CR)

A

reaction resembling UR, but elicited by CS (ex: salivating at sound of bell)

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75
Q

acquisition

A

Process of developing &
strengthening a CR
through repeated pairing
of a NS/CS with a US

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76
Q

CC extinction

A

Process by which CR weakened or eliminated as CS is repeatedly
presented in absence of US (ex: sound of bell without food, over and over again, will reduce CR (salivation))

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77
Q

Is extinction unlearning?

A

No; it’s RElearning, learning to inhibit CR is presence of CS

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78
Q

disinhibition

A

new stimulus is presented immediately before a
previously extinguished conditioned stimulus (CS),
which can cause temporary recovery of CR (ex: someone enters test late & it rekindles your anxiety)

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79
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

Reappearance of a CR to a
CS following a rest period
after extinction;
even if response is
extinguished, effects of
conditioning are NOT fully
eliminated

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80
Q

example of classical conditioning in real life:

A

food aversion-
US: bacteria
UR: nausea
CS: food eaten when you got sick
US: nausea associated with that food

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81
Q

appetitive US example

A

hotel bakes cookies for customers

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82
Q

aversive US example

A

restaurant food makes you sick, so you never return to the restaurant

83
Q

stimulus generalization

A

tendency for CR to occur in presence of stimulus similar to CS
- noticing similarities between objects & responding to objects as if they were same
- the more similar the stimuli, the stronger the response
- occurs when stimulus that has not been previously paired with US also elicits/causes CR

84
Q

How is stimulus generalization adaptive?

A

Children taught to fear moving cars generalize that fear to all moving vehicles

85
Q

stimulus discrimination

A

Ability to distinguish between CS and
similar but distinct (irrelevant) stimuli;
notice difference between objects & respond to objects as though different

86
Q

How is stimulus discrimination adaptive?

A

being confronted by a guard dog causes fear; being confronted by a guide dog does NOT cause fear

87
Q

operant conditioning

A

behavior —-> consequence; type of
learning in which consequences of
behavior determine whether behavior will be repeated in future

88
Q

operant behaviors

A

behaviors that influence consequences (ex: pressing lever)

89
Q

consequences

A

affect future behaviors (ex: food; electric shock)

90
Q

punishers

A

consequence that DECREASES a behavior (ex: electric shock)

91
Q

reinforcers

A

consequence that INCREASES a behavior (ex: food)

92
Q

How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?

A

Classical Conditioning
* The behavior is elicited by stimuli
* Reflexive, automatic
Operant Conditioning
* The behavior is emitted by an organism
* Voluntary, flexible
* Choice or illusion of choice

93
Q

Who is associated with operant conditioning?

A

BF Skinner

94
Q

Skinner box

A

operant conditioning chamber made to systematically study these behaviors
- animal freely responds with a particular behavior & may do so at any rate or time

95
Q

When behaviors are _______, those behaviors are more likely to be repeated in the future

A

reinforced

96
Q

positive reinforcement

A

stimulus applied; increases frequency of desirable behavior

97
Q

negative reinforcement

A

stimulus removed; increases frequency of desirable behavior

98
Q

positive punishment

A

stimulus applied; decreases frequency of desirable behavior

99
Q

negative punishment

A

stimulus removed; decreases frequency of desirable behavior

100
Q

Reinforcers & punishers are defined ENTIRELY
based on their effect on _______

A

behavior

101
Q

Most successful contingency tends to be _______ __________

A

positive reinforcement

102
Q

Why doesn’t punishment work?

A

organism can’t learn what desired behavior is; only understands which behaviors are undesired

103
Q

primary reinforcers

A

satisfy biological needs (ex: food, water, shelter, comfort)

104
Q

secondary reinforcers

A

CONDITIONED with primary reinforcers; CS’s associated with pleasant US’s (ex: grades, money, trophy)

105
Q

_______ consequences are more effective because _______________

A

Immediate; reward happens faster

106
Q

How does the idea of consequences explain why it’s hard to quit a bad habit?

A

Immediate satisfaction of habit (ex: smoking) comes quicker than long-term health benefits

107
Q

Immediate vs Delayed consequences

A

the more time that elapses between behavior and consequence, the less effective the consequence

108
Q

operant extinction

A

withdrawal of reinforcement weakens behavior; behaviors previously reinforced
now produce no consequence, so
the behaviors stop
** Complicated in OC though, depends on how often reinforcement
received

109
Q

Operant extinction takes ___ trial(s)

A

repeated

110
Q

continuous reinforcement

A

behaviors are reinforced every time

111
Q

With continuous reinforcement, behaviors are learned ______ and extinction occurs _______

A

quickly; quickly

112
Q

fixed-schedule reinforcement

A

number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements is set

113
Q

variable-schedule reinforcement

A

number of responses or time between reinforcements changes randomly

114
Q

ratio schedule of reinforcement

A

reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses (# of responses)

115
Q

interval schedule of reinforcement schedule

A

reinforcing a behavior after a period
of time has passed (time)

116
Q

fixed-interval schedule

A

exact amount of time passes in between each reinforcement (ex: paycheck every 2 weeks)

117
Q

fixed-ratio schedule

A

reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (ex: certain number of punchcard holes to get a free drink)

118
Q

variable-interval schedule

A

varying amount of time passes btwn each reinforcement (ex: winning video game; checking email)

119
Q

variable-ratio schedule

A

reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex: lottery)

120
Q

shaping

A

Gradual creation of a new operant behavior through reinforcement of successive steps to that final desired behavior

121
Q

observational learning

A

learning takes place by watching actions of
others; focuses on imitation (immediate or delayed)
- Understanding what to do in situations by watching others
* Does not require reinforcement for learning to occur

122
Q

Who is associated with observational learning?

A

Albert Bandura

123
Q

social learning theory

A
  1. people can learn thru observation
  2. mental states are important to learning
  3. learning does NOT necessarily lead to behavior change
124
Q

Bobo dolls

A

kids observed Bandura beating up Bobo doll and imitated him by also beating up Bobo doll

125
Q

implicit learning

A

Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition; “sneaks in under the radar”; explicit can become implicit (ex: driving)

126
Q

learned helplessness

A

When a person who has experienced repeated challenges comes to believe that they have no control of their situation
(give up and accept their fate)

127
Q

How were Seligman and Maier’s dogs conditioned to have learned helplessness?

A

classical conditioning:
1st group of dogs experienced no shock
2nd group could press a lever to stop the shock
3rd group attached to second group, so to them, the shock started and stopped randomly;
when put in cage they could jump over to escape shock, 1st group escaped easily, 2nd realized they could, 3rd lay down and whined bc they thought there was nothing they could do

128
Q

_____ can be an effective tool for people experiencing learned helplessness

A

therapy!

129
Q

emotions

A

temporary state that
includes unique subjective experiences & physiological activity, and that prepares people for action

130
Q

Emotions have _____ and _____ features

A

physical (body & brain activity); mental (what you think/feel & are prepared to do)

131
Q

Emotions vs. mood

A

emotions:
-Short-lived, intense
-Feeling we have toward an object or an event
-Merely reactions to behavior

moods:
-longer-lasting, less intense
-not reactions to/influenced by object or event

132
Q

Why are emotions challenging to measure?

A

ppl have diff experiences of the same emotion

133
Q

Emotions are measured (scientifically) by ______ and ______

A

valence (positive/negative); arousal (energy, kinda)

134
Q

appraisals

A

Conscious/unconscious evaluations & interpretations of emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus or event; made based on self-relevance, ability to control/cope, etc

135
Q

action tendencies

A

readiness to engage in a specific set of emotion-relevant behaviors

136
Q

Order of emotion reaction/action

A
  1. stimulus/event occurs
  2. make an appraisal
  3. emotion occurs and causes action tendency
  4. reaction
137
Q

Tracy’s Theory of Emotion

A

Different emotions are
different adaptations
based on the means to
survive
evolutionary
happiness has different purpose for survival than sadness does

138
Q

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A

emotions are result of experience of physiological reactions in body
- stimuli trigger ANS
activity → emotional
experience in brain
ex: see bear, HR increases, interpret fast heart rate as fear

139
Q

3 steps of J-L theory

A
  1. Physical stimulus perceived in environment
  2. Physiological changes occur as result of perception of stimulus
  3. use physiological responses to identify emotions
140
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

A

emotions and bodily responses occur
simultaneously
stimuli trigger ANS activity AND emotional experience in brain at the same time; neither physiological response NOR emotional experience causes the other
ex: See bear –> process bear –> then, at the same time, feel fear AND our heart rate increases

141
Q

3 steps of C-B theory

A
  1. perceive physical stimulus in environment
  2. Message of physical stimulus sent to thalamus (relay station for sensory info)
  3. simultaneously change facial expression/produce
    bodily changes AND acknowledge emotion
142
Q

Two-Factor Theory

A

stimuli trigger general state of physiological
arousal, which is then
interpreted as specific
emotion.
-ppl have just ONE bodily
reaction to ALL emotionally relevant stimuli
-interpretations due to occasion (ex: fear vs. excitement)

143
Q

criticism of 2-F theory

A

a single bodily response does NOT underlie all emotions

144
Q

J-L vs. 2-F

A

J-L says specific physiological responses lead to specific emotional experiences; 2-F says general physiological response for emotions

145
Q

What is known to be correct about J-L theory?

A

pattern of physiological arousal not same for all
emotions

146
Q

What is known to be correct about C-B theory?

A

people aren’t sensitive enough to their physiological responses & thus make inferences (leaping into conclusions)

147
Q

amygdala role

A

appraisals & threat-detection

148
Q

cortex role

A

Processes higher order info from all sensory
systems
Sends info to amygdala to maintain emotional
response or dial it back

149
Q

“fast” fear pathway

A

thalamus –> amygdala

150
Q

“slow” fear pathway

A

thalamus –> cortex –> amygdala

151
Q

emotional expression

A

observable sign of an emotional state
- can be expressed by tone, gaze direction, etc.
- most commonly done via facial expressions

152
Q

Darwin principles of emotional communication

A
  1. serviceable habits: emotion serves a purpose
  2. antithesis: opposing expressions portrayal (fear vs. disgust considered to be “opposite” emotions)
  3. direct action on excited nervous system: expulsion of unused energy (ex: laughter)

Certain facial & postural expressions evolved to communicate info about
intentions

153
Q

Universality hypothesis

A

all human beings make & understand the same
emotional expressions
-Stands true across cultures & some species

154
Q

Paul Ekman’s basic emotions

A

6 emotions characterized by distinct facial expressions: Happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, & disgust
- Basic emotions = pre-packaged set of reactions to stimuli; universal and hard-wired across cultures

155
Q

Basic emotions are universal when:

A

expressions are (1) heritable & (2) recognized by everyone

156
Q

facial feedback hypothesis

A

emotional expressions can cause emotional experiences
ex: “Put on a happy face”
- Cause and effect

157
Q

Why does the facial feedback hypothesis occur?

A

classical conditioning: association of emotional experience (US) and emotional expression (CS) strengthened over time

158
Q

We ____ other people’s expressions and postures in order to

A

mimic; feel what they’re feeling

159
Q

Interaction is difficult when we can’t identify another’s ______

A

emotions (ex: Botox)

160
Q

emotional contagion

A

when a person observes, then experiences the same emotion as another person
- “Catching” an emotion from another person
Ex: your partner is angry, which then puts you in a bad mood

161
Q

distress vocalizations

A

Calling out for help
- Functions to help out the one vocalizing & signal to others that danger is nearby

162
Q

display rules

A

norms for appropriate display of emotion; culturally specific
ex: in Japan, it’s considered rude to display negative emotion in front of respected ppl

163
Q

Duchenne smile

A

real smile; characterized by eye bagging and crow’s feet wrinkles at corners of eyes

164
Q

microexpressions

A

emotional ‘leakages’ from the true emotion being felt (lasts for fraction of
sec)
-brief facial expressions
that reveal true feelings

165
Q

Most microexpressions occur at the _____

A

mouth

166
Q

How to spot a lie

A

Slower speech, longer response time, fewer
details, more uncertain, tenser

167
Q

People are ____ lie detectors because

A

poor; tend to believe others are telling the truth

168
Q

polygraph

A

lie detecting machine measuring physiological responses related to stress; POOR level of accuracy

169
Q

motivation

A

internal causes of our
purposeful behavior; why you initiate a behavior

170
Q

instincts

A

faculty of acting in such a
way as to produce certain ends; Hard-wired by nature

171
Q

drives

A

internal state generated by physiological needs

172
Q

homeostasis

A

tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in a particular, ideal state

173
Q

Drive-Reduction Theory

A

Suggests that organisms motivated to reduce their drives
Ex: Animals not actually
motivated to eat OR find food rewarding. Instead, are motivated to reduce their drive for food, which they find rewarding

174
Q

Hedonic principle

A

all people motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain
keep “gauge” as close to “good” as possible”

175
Q

emotion regulation

A

use of cognitive & behavioral strategies to influence one’s emotional experience

176
Q

reappraisal

A

changing one’s emotional experience by changing meaning of emotion-eliciting stimulus
-Top emotion regulation strategy
-Reduces amygdala activity

177
Q

Hedonic treadmill

A

tendency for our happiness to return to a baseline despite ups and downs we experience
- We engage in things to reach happy
state –> engagement may become less effective over time (not sure why)
-Certain events can change level of happiness (winning lottery, death of family)

178
Q

biological motivations

A

are shared with other animals
Ex: food, reproduction, sleep, oxygen

179
Q

psychological motivations

A

are more unique to humans
-Examples can be limitless:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Conscious vs. Unconscious
Approach vs. Avoidance

180
Q

food motivation

A

supply body with
molecular building blocks & energy necessary to
survive and function
Energy must be absorbed, stored, & later accessed for use by the body

181
Q

What is most efficiently stored in the body?

A

fats

182
Q

hunger vs. satiety

A

hunger: body needs energy
satiety: body has sufficient energy
Interplay between hormones, brain regions, social/cultural influences, & psychological factors

183
Q

sex motivation

A

essential for survival of our DNA
-Hormonal Influences

184
Q

DHEA

A

helps produce testosterone, estrogen, & progesterone

185
Q

sleep motivation

A

necessary for survival
-Not necessarily needed in massive quantities
-Probably doesn’t serve a complex, higher-order function

186
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (basic)

A

One of the 1st motivation
theories
-Must have lower levels fulfilled before moving up
-Moved away from this model but still influential in motivation research

187
Q

Maslow’s bottom to top

A

-physiological needs
-safety needs
-love & belonging
-esteem
-self-actualization

188
Q

Self-determination theory

A

3 innate, universal needs:
-Autonomy ~ flexing your
independence, making own choices
-Competence ~ being good & becoming better at something
-Relatedness ~ deep meaningful connections with others

189
Q

intrinsic motivation

A

motivation to take actions
that are themselves
rewarding
-Tends to be more satisfying
Ex: play sport because it’s
fun

190
Q

extrinsic motivation

A

motivation to take actions that lead to a reward
-May undermine intrinsic rewards
Ex: play sport so you can win a prize
-Delaying gratification ~ something our species does well

191
Q

conscious motivation

A

motivation of which one is aware
-We are aware of our general motivations

192
Q

unconscious motivation

A

motivation of which one is not aware

193
Q

Need for achievement

A

motivation to solve worthwhile problems
-Typically unconscious

194
Q

approach vs. avoidance motivation

A

Approach: motivation
to experience positive outcomes
-Promotion focus
Avoidance: motivation
to NOT experience negative outcomes
-Tends to be more powerful
-Has prevention focus

195
Q

loss aversion

A

type of avoidance motivation; tendency to care more about avoiding losses than about achieving equal-size gains

196
Q

personality

A

individual’s enduring characteristic style of behaving, thinking & feeling

197
Q

_______ (multiple words) impacts personality later in life

A

temperament as a child

198
Q

Personality changes ______ throughout life

A

very little

199
Q

personality inventory

A

Self report (via questionnaire or interview); provides subjective info about their
own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
ex: MMPI, MBTI (Myers-Briggs), NEO-PI

200
Q

projective techniques

A

Designed to reveal inner aspects of personality via response analysis to standard series of
ambiguous stimuli
ex: Rorschach inkblot test

201
Q

issues with projective techniques

A

*examiner must interpret the story
*Could be biased due to subjective interpretation
*Not found to be reliable or valid at predicting behavior

202
Q

Trait Perspective

A

each person is a unique combo of personality
characteristics

203
Q

Psychodynamic Perspective

A

human behavior is a dynamic interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind

204
Q

Humanistic Perspective

A

emphasizes human potential and unique
characteristics

205
Q

Social-Cognitive Perspective

A

thought processes influence our actions

206
Q
A

psychology (4 decks)

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