Ch 6-8, 11 Flashcards
memory
constructive, adaptive process of learning that has persisted over time; info that has been acquired, stored, & can be retrieved over time
evidence that learning has occurred:
recall
recognition
relearning
recall
retrieving info not
currently in your conscious awareness, but learned at an earlier time (ex: fill-in-the-blank)
recognition
identifying info previously learned (ex: multiple choice)
relearning
learning something more quickly & smoothly when revisiting at a later time (ex: studying)
3 key functions of memory
encoding
storage
retrieval
encoding
how brain commits info to memory; process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
combining info in brain with new incoming info
storage
process of maintaining info in memory over time
retrieval
process of bringing to mind info that has been previously encoded & stored
for info to be encoded, one must ______
attend to it
________ inhibit encoding
distractions
semantic encoding
deepest level of encoding; process of relating new info in a meaningful way to knowledge already stored in memory
visual imagery encoding
process of storing new info by converting it into mental pictures
method of loci
memory strategy that uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments to enhance the recall of information
organizational encoding
process of categorizing info according to relationships among series of items
encoding strategies
mass practice
spacing effect
mnemonics
mass practice
studying a lot of info in short amount of time (cramming)
spacing effect
learning best when spacing out studying times (studying over multiple hours, days, weeks)
mnemonics
method of loci; phrases, acronyms, initializations (ex: PEMDAS, ROYGBIV)
types of memory storage
sensory
short-term
long-term
working
sensory memory
holds sensory info for a few seconds or less
types of sensory memory
iconic
echoic
iconic memory
fast-decaying, visual info
echoic memory
fast-decaying, auditory info
short-term memory (STM)
holds non-sensory info for short amount of time; conscious experience (what one has recently been thinking about)
How long does short-term memory last?
15-20 sec; can be kept longer through rehearsal; inhibited by distractions
rehearsal
process of repeating info after initial learning to better recall info
memory capacity
~7 separate pieces of info (+/- 2)
memory span
people often incapable of holding more than 7 pieces of info at once
chunking
breaking up things into groups to hold in STM for longer
working memory (WM)
conscious, active maintenance of info in STM; limited-capacity system that temporarily stores & processes info
difference between WM and STM:
WM actively uses info, STM only holds info
long-term memory (LTM)
holds info for extended amount of time (hours, days, weeks, months, years); used whenever CUED to remember previously encoded info
implicit & explicit
LTM memories are often ______ conscious awareness
outside of
LTM capacity
unlimited
If memories were NOT encoded well, likely to have ______ cues
insufficient
Memories more frequently accessed become ______ and _______
stronger; easier to recall
presque vu
tip of the tongue
Is retrieval of memory promised if info is in LTM? Why or why not?
NO, could be bad cues for info
cues
external info in the present that help bring up
events from the past (stored info) to the mind; can be specific or broad
context-dependent retrieval
Memories strongest when environment is the same as when experience originally happened (ex: encoded on land vs. underwater)
state-dependent retrieval
What we learn in one state is more easily recalled when we return to that state (ex: studying while drunk)
serial position
Tendency to best recall first & last items in a list
primacy effect
tendency to better recall first item in a list
recency effect
tendency to better recall most recent/last item in a list
explicit memory
conscious, intentional, EFFORTFUL memory retrieval (ex: trying to remember a square root)
implicit memory
Using past experiences to
remember info without
consciously recollecting /
being aware; automatic (ex: remembering song lyrics you know)
types of explicit memory
semantic memory
episodic memory
types of implicit memory
procedural memory
priming
procedural memory
Gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice; “muscle memory” (ex: tying shoes, riding a bike)
priming
Ability to think of a stimulus as a result of recent exposure; activating certain memory associations
semantic memory
Memories for facts &
concepts that make up
our general knowledge of the world (ex: knowing US presidents)
episodic memory
Collection of past personal
experiences that occurred at a particular time and place; autobiographical; pertains to specific “episodes” unique to everyone (ex: first day of college)
Memories are ______ and may not always be accurate
constructive
Our initial memory, free from suggestion, can be ___________ ___________
extremely accurate
Ways in which our memory can be influenced
flashbulb memories
post-event misinformation (smash vs. bump)
repeated recall (Ronald Cotton)
hindsight bias
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember events & experiences from BEFORE physical brain damage
anterograde amnesia
inability to remember events & experiences that happen AFTER physical brain damage; can’t encode NEW info into LTM
Henry Molaison
patient who had part of his hippocampus removed to treat his epileptic seizures; resulted in him NOT being able to form new memories (anterograde)
consolidation
brain reorganizes new info & integrates it into existing memories; how STM becomes LTM
reconsolidation
previously stored memories unstable when later retrieved, need to be restabilized them with another consolidation phase
_____ helps with memory consolidation
SLEEP
Without review intervention, learning will be forgotten _______ in the short term
rapidly
The curve of forgetting shows that newly learned info is first forgotten _______, then _______
rapidly; plateaus
learning
Acquisition of new
knowledge & skills
resulting in a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes
habituation
Gradual DECREASE in
responding to a stimulus due to repeated (or prolonged) exposure (ex: not noticing the train outside at night after living in Muse for a while)
sensitization
gradual INCREASE in responding to a stimulus (ex: being more sensitive to late-night sounds after having a breakin)
classical conditioning
stimulus —->response; when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
Which psychologist is most associated with classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
Pavlov
Russian physiologist who studied digestive processes of animals
stimulus
anything in the environment that is detectable, measurable, and evokes response/behavior
unconditioned stimulus (US)
stimulus that reliably produces natural response (ex: food)
unconditioned response (UR)
unlearned/reflexive, natural response to US (ex: salivating)
neutral stimulus (NS)
stimulus that elicits no response prior to conditioning (ex: bell)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
previously NS that comes to reliably elicit response after being paired with US; after conditioning, CS produces CR without presentation of US (ex: bell)
conditioned response (CR)
reaction resembling UR, but elicited by CS (ex: salivating at sound of bell)
acquisition
Process of developing &
strengthening a CR
through repeated pairing
of a NS/CS with a US
CC extinction
Process by which CR weakened or eliminated as CS is repeatedly
presented in absence of US (ex: sound of bell without food, over and over again, will reduce CR (salivation))
Is extinction unlearning?
No; it’s RElearning, learning to inhibit CR is presence of CS
disinhibition
new stimulus is presented immediately before a
previously extinguished conditioned stimulus (CS),
which can cause temporary recovery of CR (ex: someone enters test late & it rekindles your anxiety)
spontaneous recovery
Reappearance of a CR to a
CS following a rest period
after extinction;
even if response is
extinguished, effects of
conditioning are NOT fully
eliminated
example of classical conditioning in real life:
food aversion-
US: bacteria
UR: nausea
CS: food eaten when you got sick
US: nausea associated with that food
appetitive US example
hotel bakes cookies for customers
aversive US example
restaurant food makes you sick, so you never return to the restaurant
stimulus generalization
tendency for CR to occur in presence of stimulus similar to CS
- noticing similarities between objects & responding to objects as if they were same
- the more similar the stimuli, the stronger the response
- occurs when stimulus that has not been previously paired with US also elicits/causes CR
How is stimulus generalization adaptive?
Children taught to fear moving cars generalize that fear to all moving vehicles
stimulus discrimination
Ability to distinguish between CS and
similar but distinct (irrelevant) stimuli;
notice difference between objects & respond to objects as though different
How is stimulus discrimination adaptive?
being confronted by a guard dog causes fear; being confronted by a guide dog does NOT cause fear
operant conditioning
behavior —-> consequence; type of
learning in which consequences of
behavior determine whether behavior will be repeated in future
operant behaviors
behaviors that influence consequences (ex: pressing lever)
consequences
affect future behaviors (ex: food; electric shock)
punishers
consequence that DECREASES a behavior (ex: electric shock)
reinforcers
consequence that INCREASES a behavior (ex: food)
How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?
Classical Conditioning
* The behavior is elicited by stimuli
* Reflexive, automatic
Operant Conditioning
* The behavior is emitted by an organism
* Voluntary, flexible
* Choice or illusion of choice
Who is associated with operant conditioning?
BF Skinner
Skinner box
operant conditioning chamber made to systematically study these behaviors
- animal freely responds with a particular behavior & may do so at any rate or time
When behaviors are _______, those behaviors are more likely to be repeated in the future
reinforced
positive reinforcement
stimulus applied; increases frequency of desirable behavior
negative reinforcement
stimulus removed; increases frequency of desirable behavior
positive punishment
stimulus applied; decreases frequency of desirable behavior
negative punishment
stimulus removed; decreases frequency of desirable behavior
Reinforcers & punishers are defined ENTIRELY
based on their effect on _______
behavior
Most successful contingency tends to be _______ __________
positive reinforcement
Why doesn’t punishment work?
organism can’t learn what desired behavior is; only understands which behaviors are undesired
primary reinforcers
satisfy biological needs (ex: food, water, shelter, comfort)
secondary reinforcers
CONDITIONED with primary reinforcers; CS’s associated with pleasant US’s (ex: grades, money, trophy)
_______ consequences are more effective because _______________
Immediate; reward happens faster
How does the idea of consequences explain why it’s hard to quit a bad habit?
Immediate satisfaction of habit (ex: smoking) comes quicker than long-term health benefits
Immediate vs Delayed consequences
the more time that elapses between behavior and consequence, the less effective the consequence
operant extinction
withdrawal of reinforcement weakens behavior; behaviors previously reinforced
now produce no consequence, so
the behaviors stop
** Complicated in OC though, depends on how often reinforcement
received
Operant extinction takes ___ trial(s)
repeated
continuous reinforcement
behaviors are reinforced every time
With continuous reinforcement, behaviors are learned ______ and extinction occurs _______
quickly; quickly
fixed-schedule reinforcement
number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements is set
variable-schedule reinforcement
number of responses or time between reinforcements changes randomly
ratio schedule of reinforcement
reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses (# of responses)
interval schedule of reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a behavior after a period
of time has passed (time)
fixed-interval schedule
exact amount of time passes in between each reinforcement (ex: paycheck every 2 weeks)
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (ex: certain number of punchcard holes to get a free drink)
variable-interval schedule
varying amount of time passes btwn each reinforcement (ex: winning video game; checking email)
variable-ratio schedule
reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex: lottery)
shaping
Gradual creation of a new operant behavior through reinforcement of successive steps to that final desired behavior
observational learning
learning takes place by watching actions of
others; focuses on imitation (immediate or delayed)
- Understanding what to do in situations by watching others
* Does not require reinforcement for learning to occur
Who is associated with observational learning?
Albert Bandura
social learning theory
- people can learn thru observation
- mental states are important to learning
- learning does NOT necessarily lead to behavior change
Bobo dolls
kids observed Bandura beating up Bobo doll and imitated him by also beating up Bobo doll
implicit learning
Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition; “sneaks in under the radar”; explicit can become implicit (ex: driving)
learned helplessness
When a person who has experienced repeated challenges comes to believe that they have no control of their situation
(give up and accept their fate)
How were Seligman and Maier’s dogs conditioned to have learned helplessness?
classical conditioning:
1st group of dogs experienced no shock
2nd group could press a lever to stop the shock
3rd group attached to second group, so to them, the shock started and stopped randomly;
when put in cage they could jump over to escape shock, 1st group escaped easily, 2nd realized they could, 3rd lay down and whined bc they thought there was nothing they could do
_____ can be an effective tool for people experiencing learned helplessness
therapy!
emotions
temporary state that
includes unique subjective experiences & physiological activity, and that prepares people for action
Emotions have _____ and _____ features
physical (body & brain activity); mental (what you think/feel & are prepared to do)
Emotions vs. mood
emotions:
-Short-lived, intense
-Feeling we have toward an object or an event
-Merely reactions to behavior
moods:
-longer-lasting, less intense
-not reactions to/influenced by object or event
Why are emotions challenging to measure?
ppl have diff experiences of the same emotion
Emotions are measured (scientifically) by ______ and ______
valence (positive/negative); arousal (energy, kinda)
appraisals
Conscious/unconscious evaluations & interpretations of emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus or event; made based on self-relevance, ability to control/cope, etc
action tendencies
readiness to engage in a specific set of emotion-relevant behaviors
Order of emotion reaction/action
- stimulus/event occurs
- make an appraisal
- emotion occurs and causes action tendency
- reaction
Tracy’s Theory of Emotion
Different emotions are
different adaptations
based on the means to
survive
evolutionary
happiness has different purpose for survival than sadness does
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
emotions are result of experience of physiological reactions in body
- stimuli trigger ANS
activity → emotional
experience in brain
ex: see bear, HR increases, interpret fast heart rate as fear
3 steps of J-L theory
- Physical stimulus perceived in environment
- Physiological changes occur as result of perception of stimulus
- use physiological responses to identify emotions
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
emotions and bodily responses occur
simultaneously
stimuli trigger ANS activity AND emotional experience in brain at the same time; neither physiological response NOR emotional experience causes the other
ex: See bear –> process bear –> then, at the same time, feel fear AND our heart rate increases
3 steps of C-B theory
- perceive physical stimulus in environment
- Message of physical stimulus sent to thalamus (relay station for sensory info)
- simultaneously change facial expression/produce
bodily changes AND acknowledge emotion
Two-Factor Theory
stimuli trigger general state of physiological
arousal, which is then
interpreted as specific
emotion.
-ppl have just ONE bodily
reaction to ALL emotionally relevant stimuli
-interpretations due to occasion (ex: fear vs. excitement)
criticism of 2-F theory
a single bodily response does NOT underlie all emotions
J-L vs. 2-F
J-L says specific physiological responses lead to specific emotional experiences; 2-F says general physiological response for emotions
What is known to be correct about J-L theory?
pattern of physiological arousal not same for all
emotions
What is known to be correct about C-B theory?
people aren’t sensitive enough to their physiological responses & thus make inferences (leaping into conclusions)
amygdala role
appraisals & threat-detection
cortex role
Processes higher order info from all sensory
systems
Sends info to amygdala to maintain emotional
response or dial it back
“fast” fear pathway
thalamus –> amygdala
“slow” fear pathway
thalamus –> cortex –> amygdala
emotional expression
observable sign of an emotional state
- can be expressed by tone, gaze direction, etc.
- most commonly done via facial expressions
Darwin principles of emotional communication
- serviceable habits: emotion serves a purpose
- antithesis: opposing expressions portrayal (fear vs. disgust considered to be “opposite” emotions)
- direct action on excited nervous system: expulsion of unused energy (ex: laughter)
Certain facial & postural expressions evolved to communicate info about
intentions
Universality hypothesis
all human beings make & understand the same
emotional expressions
-Stands true across cultures & some species
Paul Ekman’s basic emotions
6 emotions characterized by distinct facial expressions: Happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, & disgust
- Basic emotions = pre-packaged set of reactions to stimuli; universal and hard-wired across cultures
Basic emotions are universal when:
expressions are (1) heritable & (2) recognized by everyone
facial feedback hypothesis
emotional expressions can cause emotional experiences
ex: “Put on a happy face”
- Cause and effect
Why does the facial feedback hypothesis occur?
classical conditioning: association of emotional experience (US) and emotional expression (CS) strengthened over time
We ____ other people’s expressions and postures in order to
mimic; feel what they’re feeling
Interaction is difficult when we can’t identify another’s ______
emotions (ex: Botox)
emotional contagion
when a person observes, then experiences the same emotion as another person
- “Catching” an emotion from another person
Ex: your partner is angry, which then puts you in a bad mood
distress vocalizations
Calling out for help
- Functions to help out the one vocalizing & signal to others that danger is nearby
display rules
norms for appropriate display of emotion; culturally specific
ex: in Japan, it’s considered rude to display negative emotion in front of respected ppl
Duchenne smile
real smile; characterized by eye bagging and crow’s feet wrinkles at corners of eyes
microexpressions
emotional ‘leakages’ from the true emotion being felt (lasts for fraction of
sec)
-brief facial expressions
that reveal true feelings
Most microexpressions occur at the _____
mouth
How to spot a lie
Slower speech, longer response time, fewer
details, more uncertain, tenser
People are ____ lie detectors because
poor; tend to believe others are telling the truth
polygraph
lie detecting machine measuring physiological responses related to stress; POOR level of accuracy
motivation
internal causes of our
purposeful behavior; why you initiate a behavior
instincts
faculty of acting in such a
way as to produce certain ends; Hard-wired by nature
drives
internal state generated by physiological needs
homeostasis
tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in a particular, ideal state
Drive-Reduction Theory
Suggests that organisms motivated to reduce their drives
Ex: Animals not actually
motivated to eat OR find food rewarding. Instead, are motivated to reduce their drive for food, which they find rewarding
Hedonic principle
all people motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain
keep “gauge” as close to “good” as possible”
emotion regulation
use of cognitive & behavioral strategies to influence one’s emotional experience
reappraisal
changing one’s emotional experience by changing meaning of emotion-eliciting stimulus
-Top emotion regulation strategy
-Reduces amygdala activity
Hedonic treadmill
tendency for our happiness to return to a baseline despite ups and downs we experience
- We engage in things to reach happy
state –> engagement may become less effective over time (not sure why)
-Certain events can change level of happiness (winning lottery, death of family)
biological motivations
are shared with other animals
Ex: food, reproduction, sleep, oxygen
psychological motivations
are more unique to humans
-Examples can be limitless:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Conscious vs. Unconscious
Approach vs. Avoidance
food motivation
supply body with
molecular building blocks & energy necessary to
survive and function
Energy must be absorbed, stored, & later accessed for use by the body
What is most efficiently stored in the body?
fats
hunger vs. satiety
hunger: body needs energy
satiety: body has sufficient energy
Interplay between hormones, brain regions, social/cultural influences, & psychological factors
sex motivation
essential for survival of our DNA
-Hormonal Influences
DHEA
helps produce testosterone, estrogen, & progesterone
sleep motivation
necessary for survival
-Not necessarily needed in massive quantities
-Probably doesn’t serve a complex, higher-order function
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (basic)
One of the 1st motivation
theories
-Must have lower levels fulfilled before moving up
-Moved away from this model but still influential in motivation research
Maslow’s bottom to top
-physiological needs
-safety needs
-love & belonging
-esteem
-self-actualization
Self-determination theory
3 innate, universal needs:
-Autonomy ~ flexing your
independence, making own choices
-Competence ~ being good & becoming better at something
-Relatedness ~ deep meaningful connections with others
intrinsic motivation
motivation to take actions
that are themselves
rewarding
-Tends to be more satisfying
Ex: play sport because it’s
fun
extrinsic motivation
motivation to take actions that lead to a reward
-May undermine intrinsic rewards
Ex: play sport so you can win a prize
-Delaying gratification ~ something our species does well
conscious motivation
motivation of which one is aware
-We are aware of our general motivations
unconscious motivation
motivation of which one is not aware
Need for achievement
motivation to solve worthwhile problems
-Typically unconscious
approach vs. avoidance motivation
Approach: motivation
to experience positive outcomes
-Promotion focus
Avoidance: motivation
to NOT experience negative outcomes
-Tends to be more powerful
-Has prevention focus
loss aversion
type of avoidance motivation; tendency to care more about avoiding losses than about achieving equal-size gains
personality
individual’s enduring characteristic style of behaving, thinking & feeling
_______ (multiple words) impacts personality later in life
temperament as a child
Personality changes ______ throughout life
very little
personality inventory
Self report (via questionnaire or interview); provides subjective info about their
own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
ex: MMPI, MBTI (Myers-Briggs), NEO-PI
projective techniques
Designed to reveal inner aspects of personality via response analysis to standard series of
ambiguous stimuli
ex: Rorschach inkblot test
issues with projective techniques
*examiner must interpret the story
*Could be biased due to subjective interpretation
*Not found to be reliable or valid at predicting behavior
Trait Perspective
each person is a unique combo of personality
characteristics
Psychodynamic Perspective
human behavior is a dynamic interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind
Humanistic Perspective
emphasizes human potential and unique
characteristics
Social-Cognitive Perspective
thought processes influence our actions
