Ch 4, 5, 10 Flashcards
sensation & perception, consciousness, development
sensation
simple stimulation of a sense organ; raw materials of perception
perception
organization, identification, & interpretation of sensations to create mental representation; sensation & prior knowledge
transduction
process of physical signals from environment translated into neural signals sent to CNS
3 steps of sensation
- RECEPTION: stimulation of sensory receptor cells by energy
- TRANSDUCTION: transforming cell stimulation into neural impulses
- TRANSMISSION: delivering neural info to brain for processing
Our perception of the world is a ____ portion of sensory signals from environment
very small
bottom-up processing
take in sensory info from environment, then attempt to understand; neural processing that starts with physical sensation
top-down processing
use prior knowledge, which influences what we sense as we try to navigate the world around us
parallel processing
brain’s capacity to perform multiple activities at the same time; building perceptions out of sensory details processed simultaneously in different areas of the brain
sensory adaptation
sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as organism adapts to current (unchanging) conditions (ex: not noticing smell after an hour)
psychophysics
methods that systematically relate physical characteristics of stimulus to observer’s perception
absolute threshold
the minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus in 50% of the trials; simplest measurement in psychophysics
sensitivity
how responsive an individual is to faint stimuli
acuity
how well one can distinguish two very similar stimuli
just noticeable difference (JND)
minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected
Weber’s law
for every sense domain, the change in a stimulus that is just noticeable is a CONSTANT PROPORTION despite variation in intensities
1oz vs. 2oz, probably notice the difference; 20lb vs. 20lb 1 oz, probably detect no difference at all
signal detection theory (SDT)
response to a stimulus depends both on a person’s sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person’s decision criterion (ex: hearing phone ring if you’re expecting a call)
Gestalt principles of organization
figure-ground
proximity
similarity
closure
good continuation
common fate
figure-ground
certain info given priority over background info
proximity
close objects grouped together
similarity
physically similar objects grouped together
closure
tendency to perceive whole objects despite pieces of whole object missing –> coherent message
good continuation
tendency to see continuously flowing lines even though lines cross or are interrupted
common fate
objects that move together will be grouped together
visible light
portion of electromagnetic spectrum visible to humans; very narrow band of spectrum (400-700nm wavelength)
wavelength
distance between peaks of light waves; determines hue/color
amplitude (visual)
height of peaks of light waves; determines amplitude/brightness
purity
degree to which a light source is emitting just one wavelength, or a mixture of wavelengths; determines saturation
In what order does light pass through the eye and into the brain?
cornea –> pupil –> lens –> retina (rods&cones&other layers) –> optic nerve –> optic chiasm –> thalamus (LGN) –> occipital lobe (VSC)
cornea
outermost, smooth, transparent outer tissue of eye; bends light wave to send it through pupil & helps focus on objects
pupil
hole in iris; contracts & expands depending on amount of light in environment
iris
translucent, donut-shaped muscle that controls size of pupil/amount of light that enters eye
lens
flexible area behind pupil which changes shape to refract light onto retina via accommodation (flatter for far away objects, rounder for nearby objects)
retina
thin layer of tissue containing photoreceptors; lines back of eyeball
accommodation (visual)
process by which eye maintains clear image on retina
Improper accommodation can result in _________
myopia & hyperopia
myopia
eyeball too long, images focused in FRONT of retina; nearsightedness
hyperopia
eyeball too short, images focused BEHIND retina; farsightedness
Types of photoreceptors in retina
rods & cones
photoreceptors
light-sensitive pigments that transduce (translate) light into neural impulses
cones
detect color, operate under normal daylight conditions, and allow focus on fine detail (visual acuity); less numerous than rods
rods
shades of gray, active under low-light conditions for night vision, function in peripheral vision; more sensitive & numerous than cones
fovea
area of retina where vision is clearest; concentrated with cones (no rods); decreases sharpness of vision in reduced light
Why are objects in peripheral vision less clear than objects in direct vision?
Light reflecting off peripheral objects falls outside of fovea
Photoreceptor cells form _______ layer of retina
innermost
bipolar & retinal ganglion cells
transparent layer of neurons above photoreceptor cell layer
bipolar cells
collect electrical signals from photoreceptors & transmit info to RGCs
retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)
organize signals sent by bipolar cells & send to brain
optic nerve
formed by bundled axons of RGCs, passes through eye and creates blind spot
The optic nerve leaves the eye through a ____ called the _______
hole, blind spot
blind spot
location in visual field that produces no sensation on the retina; has no photoreceptors
area V1
where visual info goes after LGN; part of occipital lobe containing primary visual cortex
Light is seen as white in color if _________
it contains about the same number of many different wavelengths
The perception of color is ______
created by our brain
L-cones
sense long wavelengths (red)
M-cones
sense medium wavelengths (green)
S-cones
sense short wavelengths (blue)
color vision deficiency
genetic disorder where 1 or more cone types are missing
Staring at a color for too long ______ the cones that respond to that color
fatigues
How does the brain compensate for missing visual info at the optic nerve?
uses info from other eye & previous knowledge
optic chiasm
where neural impulse goes after optic nerve; X-shaped, reorganizes axons from each eye for more sophisticated processing
lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
where neural impulse goes after optic chiasm; located in thalamus of each hemisphere
visual striate cortex (area V1)
where neural impulse goes after LGN; located in occipital lobe; features of visual world assembled & identified
ventral stream
lower stream; travels across occipital lobe into lower levels of temporal lobes, includes brain areas that represent an object’s shape and identity; “what” pathway;
dorsal stream
upper stream; travels up from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobes and includes brain areas that identify where an object is and how it is moving; “where” pathway
Ventral & dorsal visual streams work ______ but are ____________
together; functionally distinct
perception for identification
ventral stream
perception for action
dorsal stream
When ventral stream damaged, _______ was impaired, but _______ was not
ability to identify objects by sight/visual representation; ability to identify them by touch/memory
How are V1 neurons selective?
some fire when perceiving vertical edge; others horizontal; others still fire in response to different angles
What is an afterimage and why does it occur?
Cones responding to color being looked at grow fatigued, other cones respond
color
transduced info from eyes that allows for perception of color from wavelengths in air
Why does something appear red?
pigments absorb those wavelengths, reflects red onto retina
trichromatic theory
color info identified by comparing activation of red, green, and blue cones; doesn’t account for full color spectrum
opponent process theory
asserts that cells fire in opposing fashion: red-green, blue-yellow, black-white
About ____ people are colorblind
1 in 50
binding problem
how brain links features together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free-floating or miscombined features
illusory conjunction
perceptual mistake where brain incorrectly combines features from multiple objects
color afterimage
caused by staring at a color for too long, so when you look at another color using those cones, they are fatigued so only the other cones react and you perceive the color differently
attention
active and conscious processing of particular information; helps bind features together
When does illusory conjunction occur?
when it is difficult for participants to pay full attention to features that need to be glued together
perceptual constancy
even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains constant; system organizes sensory info into meaningful objects, gives info abt novel features, strips away distracting/unnecessary sensory info (ex: recognizing an actor in different roles when they look completely different)
conceptual knowledge
when we perceive an object, we don’t merely recognize what it looks like, but we understand its characteristics & significance to our behavior
modular view of object recognition
specialized brain areas/modules detect and represent faces or houses, body parts, other objects
distributed representation of object recognition
pattern of activity across multiple brain regions identifies any viewed object
perceptual organization
process of grouping and segregating features to create whole objects organized in meaningful ways; Gestalt principle
simplicity
tend to select the simplest or most likely interpretation of object’s shape
closure
system tends to fill in missing elements of visual scene, so we perceive interrupted edges as complete objects (coherent message)
continuity/good continuation
tend to group together edges or contours that have the same orientation
similarity
regions similar in color, lightness, shape, or texture are perceived as belonging to same object
proximity
objects that are close together tend to be grouped together
common fate
elements of visual image that move together are perceived as parts of single moving object
figure-ground
certain info given priority over background info; can separate figure from background (ex: black text on white paper); smaller regions likely to be figures, movement can help
monocular depth cues
aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye
relative size
object smaller when farther away, larger when up close
linear perspective
parallel lines seem to converge as they recede into distance (train tracks, hallway)
texture gradient
textures (like ground) look more detailed up close, smooth & uniform farther away
interposition
object blocking another object is closer by than the blocked object
relative height
closer objects tend to be lower in FOV, farther objects tend to be higher
binocular depth cues
require info from both eyes to compare each image & understand depth; retinal disparity
binocular/retinal disparity
difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth
Why does retinal disparity occur?
eyes are slightly separated, each registers slightly different view; brain uses disparity to perceive how far away objects are
If images fall in similar places on retinas, there is ____ disparity and the image is perceived as ____
less; farther
If images fall in different places on retinas, there is ____ disparity and the image is perceived as ____
more; closer
How does the brain compensate when both the object observed and the observer are moving?
“subtracts” observer’s movement from motion in retinal image
MT
region at back of temporal lobe, part of dorsal stream; specialized for perception of visual movement
apparent motion
perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations
biological motion perception
our ability to perceive biological motion critical for identifying individuals and socially relevant features, such as their emotional state, personality characteristics, and whether they are engaging in deceptive actions
posterior-superior temporal sulcus (STS)
area strongly linked to biological motion perception; works with temporo-parietal junction (TPJ)
STS & TMJ play key role in _______
social abilities
change blindness
when people fail to detect changes to the visual details of a scene (ex: door experiment, ppl switched places and 50% of participants didn’t notice)
inattentional blindness
failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention (ex: did you notice the gorilla?)
sound waves
changes in air pressure unfolding over time; vibrate air molecules
frequency
repetition rate, how fast waves travel; pitch
frequency measurement
hertz (Hz)
Frequency is perceived as _____
pitch
Low frequency = ____ ______
low pitch
amplitude
intensity of sound waves; loudness
amplitude measurement
decibels (dB)
Amplitude is perceived as _____
loudness
What is the amplitude of leaves rustling?
10 dB
What is the amplitude of human conversation?
60 dB
What is the amplitude of a rock concert?
130 dB
In causing hearing damage, what does amplitude depend on?
exposure
Amplitude is relative to the threshold of _______, which is ____dB
human hearing; 0 dB
High amplitude = ____ ______
loud noise
complexity
mixture of frequencies; combines amplitude & frequency
Complexity is perceived as ______
timbre
outer ear function
collecting sound waves and funneling them into middle ear
pinna
outer ear, collects sound waves & funnels them into auditory canal
structures of outer ear
pinna, auditory canal
auditory canal
moves sounds toward eardrum
tympanic membrane
eardrum, flap of tissue that vibrates with sound waves & passes vibrations to ossicles
ossicles
3 tiniest bones in human body (anvil, hammer, stirrup); pick up vibrations from eardrum, amplify, and vibrate oval window
middle ear structures
tympanic membrane, ossicles
middle ear function
transmits vibrations to inner ear
inner ear function
transduces vibrations into neural impulses & sends to brain
inner ear structures
cochlea, basilar membrane, hair cells/neurons, auditory nerve
oval window
membrane separating middle & inner ear/cochlea; vibrates with amplified sound waves from ossicles
cochlea
snail-shaped structure of inner ear; fluid-filled, contains basilar membrane & cells that transduce vibrations into neural impulses
semicircular canals
“antennae” on cochlea; help with balance & proprioception
basilar membrane
structure in inner ear, moves up & down in time with vibrations transmitted through the oval window
inner hair cells
hairlike neurons inside cochlea & on basilar membrane, move with cochlear fluid like seaweed to create action potentials & transduce vibrations into electrical signals
cochlear fluid
fluid filling cochlea, moves with vibrations & stimulates hair cells
auditory nerve
receives electrical signals generated by hair cells & transmits them to brain
area A1
primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe
apparent motion
perception of movement as result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different location; techniques used by animators & filmmakers
Low frequencies move ____ of basilar membrane, which is ____ and _______
apex; wide; floppy
The _____ of the basilar membrane is located farthest from oval window
apex
High frequencies move ____ of basilar membrane, which is ____ and _______
base; stiff; narrow
The ____ of the basilar membrane is located closest to the oval window
base
The movement of inner hair cells generates _________ in __________
action potentials; auditory nerve axons
conductive hearing loss
caused by damage to eardrum or ossicles; cannot effectively conduct sound waves to cochlea
Conductive hearing loss can be helped by:
hearing aid, medication, surgery
hearing aid function
amplifies sound waves to transmit them to cochlea
sensorineural hearing loss
caused by damage to cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve (from genetic disorders, infection, sound exposure & age); decreases sensitivity (need more intense sounds to hear) & acuity (voices esp harder to understand among other noises)
Sensorineural hearing loss can be helped by:
cochlear implant
In sensorineural hearing loss, accumulated damage from sound exposure goes hand in hand with _____
age
cochlear implant function
replaces function of hair cells to stimulate auditory nerve ; may assist in normal language development
haptic perception
active exploration of environment through touch
Skin provides info about?
temperature, pain, pressure, vibration, texture, location of object in space
Process of processing touch
Object makes contact with
body –> message travels
up spinal cord to
somatosensory cortex in
parietal lobe –> touch &
motion are processed
Temperature is ______ experience
subjective (depends on comparison)
thermoreceptors
skin receptors that sense changes of hot & cold
pain
adaptive response to tissue damage detected via nociceptors; HIGHLY subjective response
gate-control theory of pain
impulses indicating painful stimuli can be blocked in spinal cord by signals from
brain (ex: rubbing stubbed toe activates neurons to close pain gate, stops signals and relieves pain)
kinesthetic sense
provides understanding of orientation & location
of body in space; provides information on how to move our bodies to accomplish a specific
task (ex: riding bike)
Kinesthetic sense is also known as ________
proprioception
A-delta fibers
transmit initial, sharp pain; fast-acting
C fibers
transmit longer-lasting, duller, persistent pain (ex: throbbing stubbed toe)
What does the first pain pathway signal to the somatosensory cortex?
Where pain is and quality of pain
What does the second pain pathway signal to the motivational & emotional centers?
unpleasant aspect of pain; motivates actions for pain relief or escape from pain
More of the tactile brain is devoted to areas of ____ acuity (ex: _____)
high; mouth
referred pain
sensory info from internal & external areas converges on same nerve cells in spinal cord
mechanism of pain facilitation signal
increases sensation of pain, believed to motivate injured/sick people to rest so body can devote energy to recovery
Kinesthetic sense relies on _______ and _______
sense of touch, receptors in joints & muscles
vestibular sense
sense of balance; works closely with kinesthetic sense
How does the vestibular system help with balance?
Semicircular canals sense changes in acceleration & rotation of head; hair cells respond to force of gravity; vestibular sacs respond to cues associated with sense of balance and posture
Why does motion sickness occur?
mismatch btwn visual cue info and vestibular feedback; feel movement but surroundings aren’t changing
vestibular system components
2 fluid-filled semicircular canals & adjacent organs next to cochlea in each inner ear
olfaction
sense of smell
gustation
sense of taste
What is different about olfaction as opposed to the other senses?
information bypasses the thalamus and goes to the forebrain structures
_____ are closely tied to taste & smell, triggering ______
Memories; nostalgia & emotion
Process of processing smell
odorants enter nasal cavity–> mucous membrane & ORNs –> olfactory bulb
The axons of the ORNs form the ______
olfactory nerve
ORNs
olfactory receptor neurons, AKA chemoreceptors; transduce odorant molecules into neural impulses
___% of what we taste is olfaction
80
pheromones
biochemical odorants emitted by other members of a species that can affect behavior or physiology
How is the range of olfaction similar to that of vision and touch?
small number of receptors can detect lots of different types of stimuli (colors, sensations, smells)
odorants
airborne molecules produced by certain stimuli perceived by nose
Example of role of olfaction in memory & taste
taste aversion from previous experience
5 main types of taste receptors
salt, sour, bitter, sweet, umami (savory)
Role of olfaction in behavior
mate choice, adaptive response to evaluate food
Taste begins with ______
papillae
papillae
bumps on tongue containing tastebuds/taste receptors
microvilli
tips of taste receptor cells; react w/ tastant molecules in food
potential 6th type of tastebud
oleogustus (fatty/oily)
taste buds
organs of taste transduction
process of taste transduction
papillae –> thalamus (VPN) & stomach –> transduced at orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
tasters
50% of people; report SLIGHT bitter taste in coffee, saccharine, green veggies, etc.
supertasters
25% of people; report VERY (sometimes unbearable) bitter taste in coffee, saccharine, green veggies (especially), etc.
nontasters
25% of people; report NO bitter taste in coffee, saccharine, green veggies, etc.
Why are kids picky eaters?
taste perception fades w/ age
____ and ____ can affect chemical perception (give examples)
color; sound
eating in a loud place food may seem to have less flavor; bright colors tastier?
consciousness
person’s subjective experience of world & mind
3 aspects to consciousness
State of being aware of things within yourself
State of being aware of external objects
State of being characterized by sensation, emotion, volition (free will), & thought ~ mind
Problem of other minds
Fundamental difficulty we
have in perceiving the
consciousness of others
People judge minds according to:
capacity for experience
capacity for agency
Mind-Body problem
how the mind is related to the brain and body
Descartes’ view of Mind-Body problem
body & mind separate; body made of physical substance while mind is made of “thinking substance”
Contemporary view of Mind-Body problem
Mind is what the brain does; mental events intimately tied to brain events
Libet Experiment
showed that brain’s activity PRECEDES activity of conscious mind and action taken (button pressing)
4 basic properties of consciousness
intentionality
unity
selectivity
transience
intentionality
being directed towards an object of focus
unity
integrating info from all senses to form a coherent whole
selectivity
capacity to include some objects but not others
transience
tendency to change
dichotic listening
each headphone plays different audio, one input is ignored while other is attended
cocktail party effect
auditory cortex boosts some sounds (ex: your name) to help brain prioritize what’s important
When multitasking, people are usually ______
switching rapidly between tasks
Multitasking ability declines with:
age, sleep deprivation, alcohol consumption
levels of consciousness
minimal consciousness, full consciousness, self consciousness
minimal consciousness
Low-level sensory
awareness &
responsiveness when
mind inputs
sensations & may
output behavior
ex: rolling over after being poked while asleep, turning off alarm clock before being fully awake
full consciousness
individual knows & is able
to report mental state
self consciousness
attention towards self & appearance
A chimp showed self consciousness by:
wiping red dye from its eyebrow after seeing it in the mirror; recognized itself in mirror
experience sampling method (ESM)
method for people to report conscious experience at specific times (journaling, online surveys, etc)
ESM studies have shown that:
consciousness is dominated by immediate environment
daydreaming
state of consciousness in
which a supposedly purposeless flow of
thoughts comes to mind
Results of fMRI suggest brain is active during daydreaming due to activation of:
default network
mental control
attempt to change
conscious states of mind
thought suppression
conscious avoidance of a thought
Thought suppression has a negative effect called _______ that means _______
rebound effect; tendency of a thought to return to consciousness more regularly after suppression
dynamic unconscious
Freudian theory of active system containing lifetime of hidden memories, deep instincts & desires, & inner struggle to control these
forces
Freudian slip
when you say one thing, but mean your mother— I mean another
repression
mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts/memories from consciousness & keeps them in unconscious
cognitive unconscious
all mental processes that give rise to person’s thoughts, choices, emotions, & behavior (even though not experienced by person)
dual process theory
2 diff brain systems for processing info; used to understand cognitive processes
System 1
fast, automatic, unconscious, everyday decisions, prone to mistakes (ex: 1+1=2)
System 2
slow, effortful, conscious, less error-prone (ex: making a complex decision)
altered state of consciousness
form of experience that departs from normal subjective experience of world & mind
altered state of consciousness can be accompanied by:
Changes in thinking, emotional expression, meaning or significance
Disturbances in sense of time
Feelings of loss of control
Alterations in body image & sense of self
Perceptual distortions
hypnagogic state
pre-sleep consciousness
hypnic jerk
sudden feeling of falling
hypnopompic state
post-sleep consciousness (ex: waking up groggy)
circadian rhythm
naturally occurring 24-hour wake-sleep cycle, involving behavior or physiological processes
beta waves
high frequency, waking
alpha waves
low frequency, relaxing
sleep stage 1
brain wave activity slowing down; theta waves
sleep stage 2
EEG patterns interrupted by burst of activity; sleep spindles & K complexes; sleeper more difficult to wake
sleep stage 3-4
deep/slow-wave sleep; delta waves
REM sleep
rapid eye movement; sawtooth/beta waves (high level of brain activity); dreaming most common; increase in pulse & BP; body immobilized
Cycle btwn REM and slow-wave sleep occurs every ___ throughout the night
90 min
How long does it take a well-rested person to fall asleep?
20 min
How long does it take a sleep-deprived person to fall asleep?
3-4 min
Which stage of sleep has the most detrimental effects? 2nd most?
REM sleep; slow-wave sleep
Sleep deprivation effects
Reduce mental sharpness & reaction time
Increase irritability & depression
Increase risk of accidents & injury
Worsen memory
insomnia
difficulty in falling or staying asleep
must be continuous and impairing your
sleep to receive official diagnosis
Potential causes: night shifts, depression,
anxiety, etc
sleep apnea
person stops breathing for short periods while asleep
usually snoring due to obstructed airway
common in overweight, middle-aged men
somnambulism
sleepwalking during slow-wave sleep early in night; common in children
narcolepsy
sudden sleep attacks occur in middle of
waking activities
sleep paralysis
experience of waking up unable to move after REM sleep
night/sleep terrors
abrupt awakenings with panic & intense emotional arousal; common in children; sometimes hallucinate things from dreams in the world
Deprivation of slow-wave sleep
physical effects: tired, fatigued, hypersensitive to muscle and bone pain
glymphatic system
operates mainly during sleep to get rid of neurotoxins and distribute necessary substances to brain; thought of to be reason brain needs sleep, for maintenance
5 characteristics of dreaming vs. awake
- Intense emotion
- Illogical thought
- Meaningful sensation (usually visual)
- Uncritical acceptance of bizarre dream occurrences
- Difficulty remembering dream upon waking
Freudian dream theory
Dreams hold meaning
Manifest content:
dream’s apparent
topic or superficial
meaning
Latent content:
dream’s true meaning
Jung’s dream theory
Dreams are a way for the unconscious
mind to communicate with the conscious
(individuation)
* Dreams help us process current situations
and unfinished emotional/mental
problems
Symbolism: dreams have symbols that are
commonly shared historically and cross-
culturally.
* Multiple Interpretations: dreams can be
interpreted differently based on age,
personality, or circumstances.
* Big vs Little Dreams: Big dreams are
guideposts along the path of individuation
activation-synthesis model
Dreams produced when brain attempts to make
sense of activations (random brain activity)
occurring during sleep
fMRI scans during dreaming show brain
areas involved in emotion & visual imagery, but not prefrontal cortex (planning)
3 influencing factors of addiction:
- drug tolerance
- physical dependence
- psychological dependence
drug tolerance
tendency for larger drug dose to be required over time to achieve same effect
physical dependence
unpleasant physiological symptoms after withdrawal from drug use
psychological dependence
desire to return to drug even when physical symptoms gone
What factors may influence addiction?
genetic, neurobiological, & social
neurocognitive theory of dreams
dreaming enabled by the default network (supports imagination and daydreaming) and leads to experience of scenarios similar to the ones experienced while awake
threat-simulation dream theory
purpose of dreams is to simulate threatening situations that a person is likely to experience and to practice escape and avoidance from those situations
psychoactive drugs
chemicals that influence
consciousness or behavior by altering neurotransmitters
types of psychoactive drugs
Depressants
Stimulants
Narcotics
Hallucinogens
Marijuana
Depressants mechanism
reduce CNS activity; sedative and calming effect; induce sleep at high doses and cause cessation of breathing at very high doses
types of depressants
Barbiturates (sleep aids)
Benzodiazepines (tranquilizers, anti-anxiety)
Toxic inhalants (glue, nail polish remover)
most common: alcohol
Stimulants mechanism
increase CNS activity; increase dopamine & norepinephrine; heighten arousal & activity
cause paranoia, aggression, memory issues, impulse control
types of stimulants
Caffeine
Amphetamines
Nicotine
Cocaine
Ecstasy (MDMA
Narcotics mechanism
highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieve pain; induce feeling of well-being & relaxation; properties closely related to endorphins
types of narcotics
Heroin
Morphine
Hallucinogens
drugs that alter sensation & perception; often cause
visual & auditory hallucinations; effects dramatic & unpredictable; potential medical use (PTSD)
types of hallucinogens
LSD (acid)
Psilocybin (shrooms)
Ketamine (animal tranquilizer)
Marijuana
derived from hemp plant, containing psychoactive element THC; produces mildly hallucinogenic intoxication
some have euphoric experience with heightened senses of
sight & sound as well as perception of rush of ideas
affects judgment & short-term memory; impairs motor skills &
coordination
some medicinal applications
hypnosis
social interaction in which hypnotist makes suggestions that lead to change in participant’s subjective experience of world
leading people to expect certain things will happen outside their conscious will
Susceptibility varies greatly
hypnotic analgesia
reduction of pain through hypnosis in people susceptible to hypnosis
developmental psychology
study of
continuity and change
across the life span
* Infancy
* Childhood
* Adolescence
* Adulthood
prenatal development stages
germinal, embryonic, fetal
germinal stage
2-week period that begins at conception; zygote
embryonic stage
from 2 weeks post-conception to 8 weeks post-conception
embryo has arms, legs, beating heart
fetal stage
from 8 weeks post-conception to 9 months post-conception (birth)
fetus has skeleton & muscles; myelination occurs
myelination
formation of fatty sheath around axons of neurons
infancy
stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18 and 24 months
within first 3 years, children gain:
motor development (walking & grasping), language (1st word around 1 year), cognitive development (long-term memory), social development (connection to caregivers
newborn reflexes
inborn (not learned) responses of newborn to be fed; rooting, sucking, crying when hungry
rooting reflex
causes infants to move their mouths toward any object that touches their cheek
sucking reflex
causes infants to suck on any object that enters their mouth
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
developmental disorder that stems from heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy; results in baby with flat upper lip
habituation
tendency for organisms to respond less intensely to a stimulus each time it is presented
Jean Piaget
Swiss psych who studied child cognitive development; father of modern developmental psychology
cognitive development
process by which infants and children gain ability to think and understand
Piaget stages of development
sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage
sensorimotor stage
stage of cognitive development that lasts from birth to 2 years old; infant experiences world by sensing it and moving in it, develops “schemas,” begins to act intentionally, and shows evidence of understanding “object permanence”
stranger anxiety
preoperational stage
2-6 years old; child acquires motor skills but does not understand “conservation”
Child begins this stage by thinking egocentrically but ends with basic understanding of other minds
symbolic thinking: using
language to communicate
thoughts, feelings, and
pretend play
concrete operational stage
6-11 years old; child can think logically about physical objects and events and understands “conservation”; can solve basic math problems
formal operational stage
11+ years old; child can think logically about abstract propositions and hypotheticals
schema
theories about the way the world works; developed by children during sensorimotor stage
assimilation
process of applying a schema to novel stimuli
accommodation
process of adjusting a schema to incorporate new information
object permanence
understanding that objects exist even when they are not visible; infants lack this
Infants lack object permanence until they are ________ old
9 months
egocentrism
tendency of young children not be able to take the perspective of others, and instead thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do
According to Piaget, ppl enter childhood at the ______ stage and exit childhood at the ______ stage
preoperational; concrete operational
theory of mind
ability to adopt another POV; 4-6 years old
conservation
ability to identify that objects can be rearranged or moved, but quantity doesn’t change; developed at concrete operational stage
centrism
focusing on 1 quality but excluding all others
animism
giving life-like qualities to inanimate objects (ex: the scooter is mean)
Why is Piaget controversial?
people have argued that
Piaget underestimates the
skills of a preoperational child; there is not a one size fits all because experience can
influence their skill sets
Lev Vygotsky
Created sociocultural theory
skills that determine infants’ ability to learn from others
joint attention, social referencing, imitation
joint attention
ability to focus on what another person is focusing on
social referencing
ability to use another person’s reactions as information about how to think about the world
imitation
ability to do what another person does
zone of proximal development
distance between what a child can accomplish alone & what a child can accomplish with help on a task
sociocultural theory
cognitive development is continuous process closely tied to environment in which children are raised
scaffolding
cognitive support to work
through difficult tasks; withdraw support once child completes task independently
imprinting
young organisms predisposed to form relationships w/ adults of their species
Harry Harlow
experimented with rhesus monkeys to understand attachment style; examined whether mother-infant
attachment was based on
sustenance/food or
comfort/warmth
Mary Ainsworth
Studied attachment: emotional tie with another person; all infants develop some type of attachment to caregivers
strange situation
allowed researchers to
systematically examine infant attachment to primary caregivers
Observation involving infant, mother, and stranger
Focused on how infants behave during various ‘episodes’
infant attachment styles
secure attachment
ambivalent attachment
avoidant attachment
disorganized
secure attachment
emotional closeness & healthy level of independence and exploration
Infant not distressed when
caregiver leaves; acknowledges caregiver’s
return
oftentimes have better cognitive functioning, psychological well-being, emotional adjustment
ambivalent attachment
clingy, resist separation; Fearful of stranger; infant
distressed when caregiver
leaves; difficult to calm when caregiver returns
avoidant attachment
infant not distressed
when caregiver leaves &
not acknowledge return
disorganized attachment
no specific attachment pattern
temperament
biologically-based (nature) pattern of attentional & emotional reactivity; influences attachment style
parenting styles
authoritarian
authoritative
permissive
uninvolved
authoritarian
focus on obedience; punishment over discipline
authoritative
create positive relationship; enforce rules
permissive
don’t enforce rules; kids will be kids
uninvolved
provide little guidance, nurturing, and attention
children & media
Higher amounts of externalizing behaviors; inattention; less sleep; more behavioral problems; behind on developmental
milestones; struggles self-regulating
Kohlberg’s 3 stages of moral development:
preconventional, conventional, postconventional
preconventional stage
childhood; limited understanding of morality beyond bad=punishment and good=reward
conventional stage
adolescence; morals based on societal norms & pressures; want to be good AND conform to status quo
postconventional stage
adulthood; morals based on internal, abstract principles irrespective of societal expectations; develop own ethical principles that reflect core values
puberty
sexual maturity is
reached + reproduction is
possible, varies for everyone
When does puberty (usually) begin for girls?
age 11
When does puberty (usually) begin for boys?
age 13
primary sex characteristics
bodily structures directly involved in reproduction (ex: testes, uterus)
secondary sex characteristics
bodily structures NOT directly involved in reproduction (breast size, facial hair)
What happens during adolescent brain development?
development (esp in frontal lobes, prefrontal cortex
synaptic pruning
myelination of axons
During adolescent brain development, an individual is at the ____ of learning ability and is unable to fully inhibit _____
peak; impulses
adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)
types of potentially traumatic experiences that occur before age 18
ACEs can lead to:
risky behaviors, chronic
health conditions, low life potential, and early death
Erik Erikson
developmental psych who studied personality & development across the lifespan; attempted to understand behavior from birth to death
Erikson proposed:
8 stages of psychosocial development, each with a milestone
8 stages of psychosocial development:
infancy
birth - 2 years; Trust vs. Mistrust
early childhood
2 - 4 years; Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
preschool years
4 - 5 years; Initiative vs. Guilt
school age
5 - 12 years; Industry vs. Inferiority
adolescence
13 - 19 years; Identity vs. Role Confusion
early adulthood
20 - 39 years; Intimacy vs. Isolation
middle adulthood
40 - 64 years; Generativity vs. Stagnation
maturity
65+ years; Ego Integrity vs. Despair
As we grow older, our _____ and _____ change
roles; goals
Goals of life (according to Erikson):
As you get older making new friends matters less; focus on maintaining them instead
No more saving for tomorrow
Instead of acquiring new information, focus on
what gives emotional satisfaction
