Ch. 5 Social Learning

Question 1

Attitude: What does it refer to?

What does it mean for an attitude to be implicit or explicit?

How are attitudes towards novel issues shaped?

Answer 1

refers to our Evaluations which color our perceptions - they can be stable/unstable, clear/uncertain.

an Implicit attitude is :

• an Unconscious Association between Objects and Responses;
• they’re less controllable, and
• sometimes individuals are unwilling or unable to report them.

an Explicit attitude is :

• it’s Consciously Available,
• controllable, and
• easy to report.

Attitudes towards novel issues are shaped by:
- Long-Term Values; which predict the formation of new attitudes.

Question 2

Social Learning:

Answer 2

The process through which we process through which we:
- Acquire new information and Form attitudes and behaviors

from Interacting with, or Observing other people.

Question 3

Classical Conditioning:
Explain how we learn through classical conditioning?
What are the two pathways that classical conditioning uses? Describe them.

Answer 3

a Neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus After Regular Exposure Preceding Another unconditioned stimulus.

Can affect Attitude via 2 Pathways:

1. Directly:
   - Different Stimuli are paired with a neutral stimulus
   - with the intention of Directly Transferring the Affective Responses of the positive stimuli to the neutral stimulus.
2. Indirectly:
   - by pairing a Specific Stimulus to a neutral stimulus
   - to produce a Memory Link.

Question 4

What are two ways that classical conditioning can occur outside of our awareness, explain them?

Answer 4

1. Subliminally:
   > in the absence of our awareness.
2. Mere Exposure:
   > having seen and object, but too rapidly to remember;
   > mere repetition creates familiarity which results in positive affective responses.

Question 5

How can entering a new social network shift our attitudes? List three processes and explain them.

Answer 5

Entering new social networks can shift our attitudes:

a. Instrumental conditioning:
- b/c our Desire to Fit In and be Rewarded is a powerful motivator for changing attitudes > we’re likely to Change our attitudes to Match our Audience.
- especially influential when introduced to arguments not previously encountered.

b. Social comparison:
- b/c people Tend to Adopt attitude Positions of those they View as Similar to themselves and Reject attitudes of those we see as Dissimilar.

c. Observational learning:
- a Result of Social comparison > in which people Adjust to their Reference Group

Question 6

Instrumental Conditioning:

What does attitude expression often depend on?

Answer 6

conditioning through Rewards and Punishments for adopting certain views in which, responses that:
- lead to positive outcomes, or avoid negative ones = strengthened

Rewards received in the past and those we wish to receive in the future.

Question 7

Observational Learning:

Four conditions are seen as necessary in any form of observing and modeling behavior, what are they?

Answer 7

result of social comparison.

• attention,
• retention,
• reproduction, and
• motivation.

Question 8

Define, in regards to attitudes, Extremity and Certainty:

Answer 8

• the Extent to which a person Feels Strongly about something in a particular direction.
• the Degree to which an attitude is Clear and Correct.

Question 9

Define vested interests:

When attitudes are based on vested interests, why are they most likely to guide behavior?

Answer 9

Vested interests are a key determinant of attitude extremity:
- it’s the Extent to which an attitude issue or object is Relevant to the concerns of an individual or has self-relevant consequences.

they are most likely to guide behavior b/c:

• thought of more carefully,
• resistant to change, and are
• easily accessible.

Question 10

Describe the two components of attitude certainty:
Attitude clarity and attitude correctness.

How do they affect attitude certainty?
When is each most predictive of behavior?

Answer 10

Clarity:
- Reflects a Lack of Ambivalence about an attitude issue.

> the more we reflect on an attitude, the more it facilitates clarity, thereby increases certainty.

Correctness:
- is Believing one’s attitude is the Valid or proper one to hold.

> when a person learns others share their attitude it acts as justification, thereby increases certainty.

Clarity is most predictive of behavior in private contexts; whereas correctness is most predictive of behavior in public contexts.

Question 11

What is the result of when both factors of certainty are:

a) High
b) Low

Answer 11

When clarity and correctness are high:
results in greatest resistance to persuasion, and is most predictive of behavior in both private and public contexts.

When clarity and correctness are low:
results in the greatest attitude change.

Question 12

How are perceptions of certainty increased?

Answer 12

successfully Resisting Attacks on one’s attitudes because:

> Mounting and expressing Counterarguments increase perceptions of attitude correctness.

Question 13

Why are attitudes based on direct experience and personal relevance predictive of behavior and resistant to change?

(compared to indirect and not personally relevant attitudes)

Answer 13

when an attitude is based on direct experience it exerts stronger effects because:
> it’s more easily remembered and readily accessible - thus, influential - plus it’s likely to be personally relevant…

when an attitude is personally relevant:
> they’re more greatly elaborated on - in terms of supporting an argument - thus, making them resistant to change.

Question 14

Attitudes based on moral convictions…

Answer 14

strongly influence behavior b/c:

> they’re more likely to be accessible and can give rise to intense emotional responses.

Question 15

Pluralistic Ignorance:

What is it and what are its effects?

Answer 15

Its when we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others have and erroneously believe that others have different attitudes than us.

An effect of pluralistic ignorance is that it:
limits the extent to which we express our views in public.

Question 16

Explain the Theory of Reasoned Action:

Answer 16

a theory suggesting that:
Decisions to Engage in a behavior is the Result of a Rational Process; in which
a. one considers all their behavioral options,
b. the consequences of each are evaluated, and
c. a decision to act or not is reached.

> the decision reflected in behavioral intentions strongly influence behavior and can be strengthened by an implementation plan.

Question 17

The Theory of Planned Behavior:

Answer 17

An extension of the theory of reasoned action.

> in addition to considering social norms and one’s attitudes towards an event:
it suggests an individual also considers their ability to perform the behavior.

Question 18

the Attitude-to-Behavior Process Model:

What is it?

Answer 18

It’s a model of how our attitudes and the appropriate social norms are simultaneously triggered during events.

> our interpretation of the situation then, in turn, determines our behavior.

Question 19

Implementation plan:

What is it and why is it so effective?

Answer 19

are specific actions that indicate:
> how to translate our intentions into behaviors.

*It’s effective because it involves delegating control over one’s behavior to the situation.

Question 20

How often do we form an intent to change:

Intentions are determined by which 3 factors?

Answer 20

1. Attitudes towards a behavior.
   - peoples evaluations regarding whether their behavior will yield positive or negative outcomes.
2. Social norms.
   - an individuals perception of whether others will approve or disapprove of the behavior.
3. Perceived behavioral control of their ability to perform the behavior.

Question 21

Define Persuasion:

Answer 21

Efforts to change attitudes through the use of various messages.

Question 22

Early research on Persuasion mainly focused on what three elements?

Answer 22

1. The communicator:
    Most credible are those seen as:
> physically attractive; 
> experts; 
> people we already like;
> in-group members;
> arguing against self-interests; and 
> offering a msg not intended to persuade.

2. the message:
3. the audience:

Question 23

Fear Appeals:

What happens if they’re too frightening?

Answer 23

Msgs intended to induce fear:

if too frightening:

a) people tend to argue against the threat, or
b) may dismiss the application of its self-relevance.

*positively framed msgs work best.

Question 24

Modern theories of persuasion focus on cognitive processes involved in persuasion.

The two major models are:

Answer 24

1. The Elaboration-Likelihood model, and

2. The heuristic-Systematic model.

Question 25

The Elaboration-Likelihood model is a theory of persuasion that suggests, what?

Answer 25

Suggests persuasion can occur in two ways:

1. by differing in the amount of cognitive effort the message receives, and
2. by differing in the amount of elaboration the msg receives.

Question 26

What does the heuristic-Systematic model tell us about persuasion?

Explain the 4 factors that influence their occurrence.

Answer 26

this model tells us that there are 2 distinct pathways that persuasion takes:

1. Peripheral route
   - where heuristics and low-effort strategies are employed;
   - occurs when motivation and capacity to process are low.
2. Central route
   - where effortful and systematic cognition is employed;
   - occurs when motivation and capacity to process are high, meaning:

> one has time
has a lot of knowledge on the subject
its an issue of importance
it is believed that having an accurate view is essential.

Question 27

Define reactance:

What is a possible reaction?

Answer 27

Negative reactions to others who threaten to Reduce or Limit our personal Freedom by getting us to do or believe in what they want.

Can produce an increased motivation to oppose the msg - sometimes to the extent of accepting polar attitudes and behaviors.

*a reason why “hard-sells” don’t work.

Question 28

Forewarning:

Why does it work against persuasion, under what condition does it aid in persuasion?

Answer 28

advance knowledge that someone is going to attempt to change our views.

• it provides us with enough time to formulate counterarguments and recall information that would help refute the upcoming msg.
• when the audience is distracted, or
• when temporary attitude occurs before hearing the msg as a personal attempt to convince one’s self that they’re not gullible or easily influenced.

Question 29

Define Selective Avoidance and Selective Exposure:

Answer 29

Selective avoidance:
the tendency to avoid exposing ourselves to information that is contradictory to our views.

Selective exposure:
the tendency to give our attention to info that supports our views.

Question 30

Counterarguing:

Answer 30

when we actively try to mount and bolster our position to avoid persuasion and messages contradictory to our views.
> it actively increases resistance and attitude certainty, in addition, though it makes opposing views more memorable, it weakens their impact.

Question 31

Ego-depletion:

Answer 31

the lowered capacity to exert subsequent self-control following previous efforts.
- it can undermine our ability to self-regulate and resist persuasion.

Question 32

Define: Self-Control and Self-regulation

Answer 32

Refraining from an action and instead, performing one dedicated to achieving long-term goals.

Our limited capacity to engage our will-power and control our thinking and emotions.

Question 33

Cognitive Dissonance:
What is it, what is a result of?
Through what situation does it most always occur?

Answer 33

an internal state which can produce attitude change outside of external forces - that occurs as a result of an inconsistency between:

a) two or more attitudes, or
b) attitudes and behavior.

often occurs in situations involving forced compliance:
in which we are minimally induced by outside forces to do or say things inconsistent with our attitudes.

Question 34

Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that…

Answer 34

Dissonance is strongest when we have insufficient justification for engaging in attitude-discrepant behavoirs.

Question 35

Self-Affirmation:

Answer 35

the act of restoring one’s positive self-evaluations in an area they are competent in.
> a strategy used to respond to threats targeting the self-concept.

Question 36

Dissonance induced by hypocrisy:

Answer 36

> > can be a powerful means for inducing behavioral changes:

• when people publicly advocate a certain attitude or behavior,
• and are reminded of times when their own behaviors were not consistent,
• • if followed directly with a means for changing their behavior

Question 37

“Less-leads-to-more” effect:

Answer 37

by providing “just enough” or very little reasons or rewards > the greater the degree of attitude change within the individual.

• b/c providing sufficient justification undermines the likelihood of attitude change.

Question 38

Trivialization:

Answer 38

*a direct method for reducing dissonance:

Concluding that either the attitude or the behavior are not important - therefore, any inconsistency is also important.

Question 39

Cultures differ in their tightness-looseness:

Answer 39

in tight cultures there is a greater expectancy to conform to social norms:

because of the extent to which people are expected to conform with prevailing social norms, the amount that behavior is driven by personal attitude or norms also differs.

Question 40

Identify the learning process through which attitudes are formed.

Answer 40

Social learning - the process through which we acquire new information and form attitudes and behaviors through interacting and observing others.

> Classical conditioning - directly, many stimuli; or indirectly, specific stimulus.
Instrumental learning - rewards and punishments.
Observational learning:
Social comparison - ingroups and reference groups

> persuasion and efforts to reduce cog dissonance (more so changing vs forming attitudes).

Question 41

Examine the link between attitudes and behavior, along with factors that affect it.

Answer 41

Attitudes accessible or primed affect our interpretations of an event/attituded issue and preceding behavior.

The theory of planned behavior:
- our desire and motivation plus the ability to perform the behavior.
Direct experience and personal relevance:
- affect the accessibility, and increase perceived correctness;

Situational constraints, such as:

• Perceived appropriate responses - mixed with our desire to fit in and be rewarded for our thoughts and overt behavior;
• Pluralistic ignorance - limits the extent we overtly express attitudes.

Internal factors, such as:

• Extremity - and whether or not we have vested interests, or if the attitude is based on moral convictions;
• Attitude Certainty - the extent that our attitudes are clear (predictive of private behavior) and correct (public behavior); when both are high predictive of both public and private behavior.

Question 42

What’s the difference between situations when we have time to engage in controlled thought and when we’re operating under heuristic conditions in regards to our behavior?

Answer 42

when we have time to engage in controlled thought:
> we can weigh out all the options and decide how to act - aka the theory of reasoned action and planned behavior; strengthened with an implementation plan.

under heuristic conditions:
> our perceptions are shaped by our attitudes and appropriate social norms which immediately affect behavioral responses.
> attituded-to-behavior model

Question 43

Indicate factors that determine whether persuasion attempts will be effective.

Answer 43

Old research focused on:
Whether the communicator is perceived as:
- attractive, an expert, part of our reference group or ingroup, someone we already like, arguing against a vested interest, and appears to be delivering a msg not intended to persuade; and

Whether the msg is framed positively or as a fear appeal.

Current research focuses on:
Cognitive processes - through models such as:
- elaboration-likelihood and heuristic-systematic processing.

> argument strength only affects systematic processing, whereas
peripheral cues - such as those of the communicator - affect heuristic processing.

Whether or not we are distracted, ego-depleted, or in
a positive or negative affect also predict whether persuasion attempts will be effective.

Question 44

Examine methods used by people to resist persuasion

Answer 44

• Selective avoidance and exposer - our tendency to limit our interactions to info that’s inconsistent with our views and to pay attention to info that is.
• Counterarguing actively and bolstering their original stance to themselves.
• Forewarning - in some cases helps, alternatively can cause temporary attitude change.
• when people have a negative reaction to attempts of others to limit their free-will > Reactance - may adopt polar stance or behaviors.

Question 45

Evaluate the effects of cognitive dissonance on attitude change.

Answer 45

Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that:
- dissonance is strongest when insufficient justification is provided for attitude-discrepant behaviors > “less-is-more” effect.

Dissonance effects attitude and can be reduced:

• directly > by changing the attitude itself, or
• through trivilization > deciding that the attitude and associated behavior doesn’t matter.

Dissonance induced via hypocrisy:
- can be powerful for changing either behavior or attitude.