Ch. 5: Articulatory – Phonological Development & Speech Sound Disorders

Question 1

Articulation Disorder

Answer 1

Refers to speech-motor-control problems.

Question 2

Phonological Disorder

Answer 2

Refers to the fact that phonology is part of the language system. Children with these disorders have problems that are specific to the knowledge of phonological rules and have faulty phonological representations.

Question 3

Speech Sound Disorder (SSD)

Answer 3

The presentation of reduced intelligibility due to a combination of speech-motor and phonological factors.

Question 4

Language

Answer 4

An abstract system of symbols used to communicate meaning. It is larger than speech.

Question 5

Speech

Answer 5

The actual motor production of oral language.

Question 6

Articulation Approach

Answer 6

Looks at children’s acquisition of individual phonemes and emphasizes speech-motor control. Viewed as the surface representation or what we produce.

Question 7

Phonological Approach

Answer 7

Studies children’s acquisition of individual phonemes and the processes underlying such patterns. Viewed as the underlying representation of what we produce.

Question 8

Phonology

Answer 8

Focuses on the underlying knowledge of the rules of the sound system of a language.

Question 9

Naturalness

Answer 9

A natural class, process, property, or rule is one that is preferred or frequently used in phonologic systems. One phonological property is more natural than another if the first is used in a greater number of languages and if it develops before the other property.

Question 10

Unmarked Sounds

Answer 10

Sounds that appear to be natural. They tend to be easier to acquire, and thus are acquired earlier than other sounds. E.g., /b/

Question 11

Marked Sounds

Answer 11

Less natural sounds that tend to be acquired later. E.g., /th/

Question 12

Phoneme

Answer 12

The smallest unit of sound that can affect meaning. A class of speech sounds. An abstract name given to variations of a speech sound.

Question 13

Allophones

Answer 13

Small variations in phoneme sounds. E.g., kitten, bucket, cook

Question 14

Phonemic

Answer 14

Refers to the abstract system of sounds. E.g., /t/

Question 15

Phonetic

Answer 15

Refers to concrete productions of specific sounds. E.g., [t]

Question 16

Vowels

Answer 16

Speech sounds that are always voiced and the mouth is most open. Classified according to the tongue positions needed to produce them (front, central, back, high, mid, low). Also classified according to lip position (rounding vs. retraction).

Question 17

46

Answer 17

Number of speech sounds in the English language.

Question 18

Diphthongs

Answer 18

Occur when two vowels are combined. Produced by a continuous change in vocal tract shape.

Question 19

Distinctive Features Paradigm

Answer 19

Paradigm used to describe vowels and consonants. Believes that the phoneme is not the basic unit of speech. Proposes that a phoneme is a collection of independent features. Uses a binary system. Features are either present or absent (+ or -).

Question 20

Distinctive Feature

Answer 20

A unique characteristic of a phoneme that distinguishes one phoneme from another.

Question 21

Place-Voice-Manner Paradigm

Answer 21

Paradigm used to describe consonants.

Question 22

Place of Articulation

Answer 22

Describes the location of the constriction. Includes: Bilabials, labiodentals, linguadentals, lingua-alveolars, linguapalatals, linguavelars, and glottals.

Question 23

Voicing

Answer 23

Describes the presence or absence of VF vibrations in the production of consonants.

Question 24

Manner of Articulation

Answer 24

Describes the degree or type of constriction of the vocal tract. Includes: Stops, fricatives, affricates, glides, liquids, and nasals.

Question 25

Stops

Answer 25

Produced by completely stopping the airflow. The air pressure is built up in the oral cavity and then released in a manner resembling a small explosion.

Question 26

Fricatives

Answer 26

Produced by severely constricting the oral cavity and then forcing the air through it, creating a hissing or friction type of noise.

Question 27

Affricates

Answer 27

A combination of stops and fricatives. Only two English affricates: /ch/ & /dj/

Question 28

Glides

Answer 28

Produced by gradually changing the shape of the articulators. Only two English glides: /w/ & /j/

Question 29

Liquids

Answer 29

Produced with the least restriction in the oral cavity. Also called semi-vowels. Only two English liquids: /r/ & /l/

Question 30

Lateral

Answer 30

In producing this sound, air escapes through the sides of the tongue. Only English lateral: /l/

Question 31

Nasals

Answer 31

Produced while keeping the VP port open so the sound produced by the larynx passes through the nose. Only three English nasals: /m/, /n/, /ng/

Question 32

Behavioral Theory of Articulatory-Phonatory Development

Answer 32

Theory of articulatory-phonatory development based on conditioning and learning. Treats the acquisition of speech like the acquisition of any other skill. Thus, it is presumed that the acquisition of speech does not require such special phenomena as innate universals. Emphasizes that the child develops the adult-like speech of his or her community through interactions with the caregiver. The child’s babbling is gradually shaped into adult forms through principles of classical conditioning that occur primarily during caregiver-child interactions. Some experts argue that this theory does not account for an infant’s creativity or capacity to produce new patterns. Evidence is not compelling that caretakers selectively reinforce the child’s sounds in the prelinguistic period.

Question 33

Structural Theory of Articulatory-Phonatory Development

Answer 33

Theory of articulatory-phonatory development which states that phonological development follows an innate, universal, and hierarchal order of acquisition of distinctive features. The child begins with the maximal contrasts of /p/ and /a/, and differentiates and fine tunes them into more subtle contrasts. Jakobson (1968) stated that babbling was not continuous with early speech, and thus proposed the hypothesis of discontinuity between early babbling and subsequent speech development. There appears to be little support for the idea of discontinuity or for the idea of development of feature contrasts. Because of the variability between individual children, the idea of invariable universals of development is not supported.

Question 34

Natural Phonology Theory of Articulatory-Phonatory Development

Answer 34

Theory of articulatory-phonatory development which proposes that natural phonological processes are innate processes that simplify the adult target word. Some experts believe that natural phonological processes are innate or are acquired early in life and fairly easily by children. According to Stampe, children learn to suppress processes that do not occur in their languages. Stampe believed that children represent or store speech forms correctly. What leads to the use of phonological processes is output constraints. The concept of the universal or innate status of child phonological processes or rules is controversial. There is no empirical evidence that children have full and accurate perception from the earliest stages of speech production. Natural phonology does not account for “non-natural” simplifications in the speech of children. Many highly unintelligible children produce the sounds of speech in a way that cannot be classified using natural phonology.

Question 35

Output Constraints

Answer 35

Constraints on production that lead to simplification of the adult model.

Question 36

Generative Phonology Theory

Answer 36

Theory of articulatory-phonatory development that attempts to explain the sound structure of human languages. Phonological descriptions are dependent on information from other linguistic levels. Phonological rules map underlying representations onto surface pronunciations. This theory has been applied to our understanding of children’s speech acquisition because is enables a description of the relationship of children’s productions to adult pronunciation in terms of phonological rules. Some underlying premises of this theory have been criticized and this theory is not broadly applied in the field of SLP.

Question 37

Linear Phonology Theories

Answer 37

These theories are based on the premise that all speech segments are arranged in a sequential order that all sound segments have equal value, and that all distinctive features are equal. Thus, no one specific sound segment has control over other segments. Characterized by rules that operate in a domain of linear strings of segments. Assumes that phonological properties are linear strings of segments, and that sound segments are composed of a bundle of independent characteristics or features. Goals of these theories are:

• Describe phonological patterns that occur in natural languages
• Create rules that account for these systems
• Identify universal principles that apply to various phonological systems

Question 38

Non-Linear Phonology Theories

Answer 38

Theories that explore the relationships among units of different sizes. Developed as an alternative to account for the influence of stress and tone features in levels of representation independent of segmental or linear representation. Deemphasize processes or rules and focus on prosodic phenomena. Assume that there is some sort of hierarchy that helps to organize both segmental and suprasegmental phonological units or properties.

Question 39

Phonation Stage

Answer 39

Birth – 1 month. Speechlike sounds are rare, and most vocalizations are reflexing (e.g., burping, coughing, crying). Some nonreflexive vowels or syllabic consonants may occur.

Question 40

Coughing/Gooing Stage

Answer 40

2 – 4 months. Most of the infant’s productions are acoustically similar to /u/. Some velar consonantlike sounds may occur.

Question 41

Expansion Stage

Answer 41

4 – 6 months. The infant is “playing” with the speech mechanism, exploring his or her capabilities through such productions as growls, squeals, yells, and raspberries (bilabial trills). Some CV-like combinations and vowellike sounds may be produced.

Question 42

Canonical/Reduplicated Babbling Stage

Answer 42

6 – 8 months. The infant produces strings of CV syllables, such as [mamamama], [dadadada], or [dedededed]. Although the infant does not have sound-meaning correspondence, the timing of the CV syllables approximates that of adult speech. By about 8 months, children with hearing losses fall behind hearing peers in language development.

Question 43

Variegated/

Nonreduplicated Babbling Stage

Answer 43

8 months – 1 year. The infant continues to use adult-like syllables in CV sequences, but a variety of consonants and vowels appear in single vocalization (e.g., [duwabe]).

Question 44

Cross-Sectional Research Studies

Answer 44

Research studies that are used to establish norms of articulation development.

Question 45

Norms

Answer 45

The typical behaviors of a representative group of children. Based on statistical averages that apply to large groups of students. Useful only as broad guidelines.

Question 46

Longitudinal Research Studies

Answer 46

Research studies that observe the process of learning. One or more children are observed for an extended period of time. Do not yield norms.

Question 47

Substitution Processes

Answer 47

Group of phonological processes including vocalization, gliding, velar fronting, stopping, depalatization, affrication, deaffrication, backing, and glottal replacement.

Question 48

Assimilation Processes

Answer 48

Group of phonological processes including reduplication, regressive assimilation, and voicing assimilation.

Question 49

Syllable Structure Processes

Answer 49

Group of phonological processes including unstressed- or weak-syllable deletion, final consonant deletion, epenthesis, consonant-cluster simplification or reduction, diminutization, and metathesis.

Question 50

Vocalization

Answer 50

In this process, a vowel (usually /o/ or /u/) is substituted for a syllabic consonant (usually a liquid). E.g., a child might say “bado” instead of “bottle” or “noodoo” instead of “noodle.”

Question 51

Gliding

Answer 51

In this process, a liquid consonant is produced as a glide. Can also occur in consonant clusters (“pretty” → “pwetty”). Children frequently make the following substitutions:

• l → w
• l → j
• r → w

Question 52

Velar Fronting

Answer 52

In this process, an alveolar or a dental replaces a velar. This usually occurs in word-initial position (e.g., ti/ki).

Question 53

Stopping

Answer 53

In this process, a fricative or affricate is replaced by a stop. E.g., a child might make the following substitution: “tu” for “shoe.”

Question 54

Depalatization

Answer 54

In this process, a child substitutes an alveolar affricate for a palatal affricate (e.g., “wats” for “watch”) or substitutes an alveolar fricative for a palatal fricative (e.g., “chun” for “sun”).

Question 55

Deaffrication

Answer 55

In this process, a fricative replaces an affricate (e.g., “sip” for “chip”).

Question 56

Backing

Answer 56

In this process, a posteriorly placed consonant is produced instead of an anteriorly places consonants (velars are substituted for alveolars). E.g., “gan” for “dan.”

Question 57

Glottal Replacement

Answer 57

In this process, a glottal stop is produced in place of other consonants.

Question 58

Reduplication

Answer 58

In this process, a child repeats a pattern. E.g., “babababa.”

Question 59

Regressive Assimilation/

Consonant Harmony

Answer 59

In this process, a later sound is influenced by an earlier sound. E.g., “guck” for “duck.”

Question 60

Progressive Assimilation/Consonant Harmony

Answer 60

In this process, an earlier sound influences a later sound. E.g., “kick” for “kiss.”

Question 61

Voicing Assimilation

Answer 61

In this process, either devoicing (e.g., “pick” for “pig”) or voicing (e.g., “bad” for “pad”) occurs.

Question 62

Unstressed- or Weak-Syllable Stress Deletion

Answer 62

In this process, an unstressed syllable is omitted. E.g., “mato” for “tomato.”

Question 63

Final Consonant Deletion

Answer 63

In this process, the final consonant is deleted. E.g., “ca” for “cat”).

Question 64

Epenthesis

Answer 64

In this process, a schwa vowel in inserted between the consonants in an initial cluster (“taree” for “tree”) or after a final voiced stop (“stopa” for “stop”).

Question 65

Consonant-Cluster Simplification or Reduction

Answer 65

In this process, a consonant or consonants in a cluster are deleted. E.g., “peed” for “speed.”

Question 66

Diminutization

Answer 66

In this process, /i/ is added to the target form. E.g., “doggy” for “dog.”

Question 67

Metathesis

Answer 67

In this process, the production of sounds in a word are in reduced order. Also known as a spoonerism. E.g., “peek” for “keep”).

Question 68

Organic Disorders

Answer 68

Disorders that arise from various physical anomalies that affect the function or structure of the speech mechanism.

Question 69

Functional/Idiopathic Disorder

Answer 69

Disorder that cannot be explained on the basis of neurological damage, muscle weakness or paralysis, or structural problems, such as cleft palate.

Question 70

Substitutions

Answer 70

An incorrect sound is produced in place of a correct sound.

Question 71

Omissions/Deletions

Answer 71

Required sounds are omitted in words.

Question 72

Labialization

Answer 72

Sounds are produced with excessive lip rounding.

Question 73

Nasalization

Answer 73

Oral sounds (especially oral stops like /g/) are produced with inappropriate, usually excessive, nasal resonance.

Question 74

Pharyngeal Fricative

Answer 74

Fricatives such as /h/ are produced in the pharyngeal area.

Question 75

Devoicing

Answer 75

Voiced sounds are produced with limited VF vibrations or without VF vibrations.

Question 76

Frontal Lisp

Answer 76

Sibilant consonants are produced with the tongue top placed too far forward (between or against the teeth). /s/ and /z/ are the sounds most commonly involved.

Question 77

Lateral Lisp

Answer 77

Sibilant sounds such as /s/ and /z/ are produced with air flowing inappropriately over the sides of the tongue.

Question 78

Stridency Deletion

Answer 78

Strident sounds are omitted (e.g., “ma” for “match”). Sometimes described as a phonological process.

Question 79

Unaspirated

Answer 79

Aspirated sounds (e.g., /k/ and /t/ are produced without aspiration.

Question 80

Initial, Medial, & Final Deletion Errors

Answer 80

Errors in the production of a beginning, medial, or final sound in a word.

Question 81

Prevocalic, Intervocalic, & Postvocalic Errors

Answer 81

Errors occur with reference to consonant position in syllables would involve a postvocalic error. The substitution of “gog” for “dog” would involve a prevocalic error.

Question 82

Structural Abnormalities Associated with SSDs

Answer 82

Includes ankyloglossia, dental deviations, oral-motor coordination skills, orofacial myofunctional disorders (tongue thrust), hearing loss, and neuropathologies such as dysarthria and apraxia.

Question 83

Ankyloglossia

Answer 83

Occurs when the frenulum is attached too close to the top of the tongue. May be surgically clipped or cut. Not a frequent cause of misarticulaton.

Question 84

Malocclusion

Answer 84

Refers to deviations in the shape and dimensions of the mandible and maxilla and the positioning of the individual teeth.

Question 85

Class I Malocclusion

Answer 85

In this malocclusion, the arches themselves are generally aligned properly, but some individual teeth are misaligned.

Question 86

Class II Malocclusion

Answer 86

In this malocclusion, the upper jaw or maxilla is protruded and the lower jaw or mandible is receded. Also referred to as overbite.

Question 87

Overjet

Answer 87

Occurs when a child has a class II malocclusion and the upper teeth from the molars forward are positioned excessively anterior to the lower teeth.

Question 88

Class III Malocclusion

Answer 88

In this malocclusion, the maxilla is receded and the mandible is protruded.

Question 89

Diadochokinetic Rate

Answer 89

Maximum repetition rate of syllables in rapid succession.

Question 90

Orofacial Myofunctional Disorders (OMD)

Answer 90

Term that encompasses any anatomical or physiological characteristic of the orofacial structures (palate, cheeks, tongue, lips, jaw, teeth) that interferes with normal speech, physical, dentofacial, or psychosocial development. This includes swallow, labial and lingual rest, and speech posture differences. Includes tongue thrust. Children typically exhibit deviant swallows. According to ASHA, “Myofunctional therapy is appropriate and within the purview of SLPs who assess and treat the effects of OMD on swallowing, rest postures, and speech.”

Question 91

Childhood Dysarthria

Answer 91

Presentation of dysarthria in childhood. Treatment is very repetitive and structured, involving increasing muscle tone and strength, increasing range and rate of motion, and treating other parameters (e.g., respiration) that affect intelligibility. Involves intensive and systematic drill, modeling, phonetic placement, and emphasis on accuracy of sound production. For children that cannot be 100% intelligible, compensatory strategies (e.g., prosthetic devices) are often used to assist in communication.

Question 92

Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS)

Answer 92

Presentation of AOS in childhood. Children demonstrate sensorimotor problems in positioning and sequentially moving muscles for the volitional production of speech. They frequently show groping behaviors and poor intelligibility due to inconsistent and multiple articulation errors. Inconsistent errors are a hallmark of this disorder. May have deficits in phonological representation. Treatment is multimodal, involving extensive drills stressing sequences of movement involved in speech production, imitation, decreased rate of speech, normal prosody, and increased accuracy in the production of individual consonants, vowels, and consonant clusters. Children may also need intervention for oral language, spelling, and reading deficits. Therapy often takes years and must be intensive. Home practice and self-monitoring are essential.

Question 93

Stimulability

Answer 93

Refers to the child’s ability to imitate the clinician’s model. Clinicians should select the sounds the child misarticulates and assess the child’s Stimulability for those sounds.

Question 94

Independent Analysis

Answer 94

A type of analysis in which a child’s speech patterns are described without reference to the adult model of language of the child’s community. E.g., might state that a child’s speech contains /f/, /b/, /s/, /k/, but would not state if these sounds were produced correctly in comparison to the adult community’s standard form. Can provide important information about the phonology of young children who make many errors in sound productions and who may or may not have an extensive repertoire of phonemes.

Question 95

Relational Analysis

Answer 95

A type of analysis in which a child’s speech is compared to the adult model of his or her speech community. More commonly used in clinical settings.

Question 96

Phonological Processes Disappearing by Age 3

Answer 96

- Reduplication
Weak/unstressed syllable deletion
- Consonant assimilation
- Prevocalic voicing
- Fronting of velars
- Final consonant deletion
- Diminutization

Question 97

Phonological Processes Persisting After Age 3

Answer 97

• Final consonant devoicing
• Consonant-cluster reduction
• Stopping
• Epenthesis
• Gliding
• Depalatization
• Vocalization

Question 98

Communicative Potency

Answer 98

Concept that looks at how functional words are within an individual child’s communication environment. Words such as stop, yes, give me, and some more allow children greater control over their environments.

Question 99

Phonological Awareness

Answer 99

Refers to the explicit awareness of the sound structure of a language, or attention to the internal structure of words. Viewed as a subcategory of metalinguistic awareness.

Question 100

Metalinguistic Awareness

Answer 100

Refers to the child’s ability to manipulate and think about the structure of language.

Question 101

Van Riper’s Traditional Approach

Answer 101

Foundation for motor articulation therapy that focused on auditory discrimination/perceptual training and phonetic placement. Emphasis on drills of increasing intensity.

Question 102

McDonald’s Sensory-Motor Approach

Answer 102

Articulation therapy model based on the assumption that the syllable, not the isolated phoneme, is the basic unit of speech production. Principles of coarticulation are important to this approach. Training should begin at syllable level. May be helpful for children with oral-motor coordination difficulties.

Question 103

Distinctive Features Approach (DFA)

Answer 103

Goal of this articulation therapy approach is to establish missing distinctive features or feature contrasts by teaching relevant sounds. Assumes that teaching a feature in the context of a few sounds will result in generalized production of other sounds with the same feature or features. Clinicians try to find a child’s underlying patterns (e.g., problems with the feature of stridency) and train one or several sounds in that pattern in hopes that generalization to other sounds in that pattern will occur. Clinicians typically use minimal pairs.

Question 104

Contrast Approaches

Answer 104

Approaches to articulation therapy that may utilize either minimal pair contrasts or maximal pair/opposition contrasts.

Question 105

Metaphon Therapy Approach

Answer 105

Based on metalinguistic awareness, designed to enhance children’s metaphonological skills. Assumes that children’s difficulties do not necessarily lie in the actual motor production of speech sounds but in the acquisition of the rules of the phonological system. Thus clinicians, operate from the premise that the best way to help children improve their rule systems is to give them information that will encourage them to make their own changes and thus sound more intelligible. Often used with preschool children who have moderate to severe phonological disorders. Focuses on feature differences between sounds to help children develop an awareness that sounds can be classified by characteristics such as place, duration, and others. The therapy consists of short phases.

Question 106

Phonological Process Approach

Answer 106

Based on the assumption that a child’s multiple errors reflect the operation of certain phonological rules and that the problem is essentially phonemic, not phonetic. A child’s errors are grouped and described as phonological processes and not discrete sounds. Most popular approach of this variety is Hodson and Paden’s (1991) Cycles Approach.

Question 107

Hodson and Paden’s Cycles Approach

Answer 107

Widely used phonological process approach. Designed to treat children with multiple misarticulations and highly unintellgibile speech. Error patterns are targeted for remediation based on stimulability, intelligibility and percentage of occurrence (40% or greater). Error patterns should not be drilled to a criterion of mastery. Rather, the clinician introduces correct patterns, gives the child limited practice with them, and returns to them at a later date. A cycle runs 5 – 16 weeks, and each child usually requires three to six cycles (30 – 40 hours at 40 – 60 minutes per week). Each sound in an error pattern receives 1 hour of treatment per cycle before the clinician proceeds to the next sound in the error pattern. Only one error pattern is treated in each therapy session, but all error patterns are treated in each cycle. Each treatment session consists of the following activities:

• Review of the previous session’s target words
• Auditory bombardment (listening to target words that are amplified)
• Activities involving new target words
• Play break
• More activities involving more target words
• Repeating auditory bombardment and dismissal
• Families are also given activities for home practice