Ch 5 Flashcards
Consciousness
Awareness of oneself and the environment.
Biological Rhythms
A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological system. A biological clock in the brain governs: Hormone levels Urine volume Blood pressure
Biological Rhythms
Entrainment
The synchronization of biological rhythms with
external cues.
Endogenous
Rhythms that continue to occur even in the absence of
external cues.
Types of Endogenous Rhythms
1. Circadian Rhythms
1. Circadian Rhythms A biological rhythm with a period of about 24 hours Examples: sleep-wake cycle body temperature
Circadian rhythms exist in plants, animals,
insects, and human beings.
Reflect the adaptation of organisms to the many
changes associated with the rotation of the earth
on its axis.
Types of Endogenous Rhythms
2. Infradian Rhythms
2. Infradian Rhythms A biological rhythm that occurs less frequently than once a day. Often monthly or seasonally. Examples: Female menstrual cycle. Southern migration of birds in the fall. Hibernation of bears in the winter.
Types of Endogenous Rhythms
- Ultradian Rhythms
A biological rhythm that occurs more than once a day.
Often on a 90-minute schedule.
Example:
Stomach contractions
Hormone levels
Brain-wave responses during cognitive tasks
Circadian Rhythms
With External Cues
Without External Cues
Humans usually adapt to a strict 24-hour
schedule.
Biological rhythms become entrained to external
cues.
Without External Cues
Body temperature and certain hormone levels
still follow a cycle close to 24 hours.
The Body’s Clock Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
A tiny teardrop-shaped cluster
of cells in the hypothalamus.
Contains a biological clock that
governs circadian rhythms.
The Body’s Clock
The Process
Receptors in the back of the eye send information to the SCN about changes in light and dark. SCN responds by sending out messages that cause the brain and body to react to the light and dark changes.
The Body’s Clock
Melotonin
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland.
Involved in the regulation of circadian
rhythms.
Helps keep the biological clock in phase with
the light-dark cycle.
Directly promotes sleep in blind people who
lack light perception.
The Body’s Clock
Internal desynchronization
A state in which biological rhythms are not in phase with one another. Examples: Jet lag from airplane flights. Feeling tired and irritable when adjusting to a night shift.
The Body’s Clock
Three proposed methods to treat internal
desynchronization:
- Using bright lights to “reset” the clock in the SCN.
- Treating people with small amounts of melatonin
on a controlled schedule. - Combining melatonin treatment with light
therapy.
The Body’s Clock
Circadian rhythms can be affected by many
factors:
The Body’s Clock
Circadian rhythms can be affected by many
factors:
Moods & Infradian Rhythms
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
A controversial disorder in which a person experiences
depression during the winter and an improvement of
mood in the spring.
Evaluating the actual prevalence and treatment of SAD is difficult. Clinicians suggest that 20% of the population suffers from the disorder. Scientific surveys indicate that the prevalence of SAD is much lower: 2 to 3% of Canadians 1% of Americans 0 to 1% of Asians
Treating SAD
1. Phototherapy Sitting in front of a extremely bright fluorescent light. 2. Negative ion Therapy Exposure to high levels of negative ions.
Female Menstrual Cycle
Changes in a woman’s
hormones that direct her body
to release a tiny egg or ovum.
Average length is 28 days.
Day 1
Estrogen and progestrone are at their lowest level.
Inner lining of the uterus is discharged as menstrual blood.
Unfertilized ovum produced in the last cycle is discharged.
Day 2 through 12
Menstruation continues for three to six days.
A new ovum begins to mature in the ovaries.
Estrogen levels increase prompting the uterine lining to thicken.
Ovulation
Estrogen levels peek.
A mature ovum is released (Day 14).
Days 15 through 22
Ovum travels down the fallopian tube.
Egg may be fertilized at this time (unite with a sperm).
Day 22 to the beginning of next cycle
If egg is not fertilized, levels of both estrogen and progesterone will begin
to fall.
The uterine lining is shed as menstrual blood.
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Is there really such a thing as “PMS”?
A condition that describes the physical, psychological, and emotional symptoms related to a woman's menstrual cycle. Water retention Cramping Breast tenderness Backache Irritability Mood swings
Only 5% of women actually experience the emotional
symptoms of “PMS”.
Two reasons why the emotional symptoms of “PMS” are often over-reported:
1. Women are more likely to notice feelings of irritability when these moods
occur premenstrually.
2. Women label symptoms that occur before a period as “PMS”. Similar
symptoms at other times of the month are due to a stressful day.
Is there really such a thing as “PMS”?
- No gender differences exist in mood.
- No relation exists between stage of the
menstrual cycle and emotional symptoms. - No consistent “PMS” pattern exists across
successive menstrual cycles.
Why We Sleep
Sleep appears to function as a time-out period for the body: Waste products are eliminated. Cells are repaired. Immune system is strengthened. Hormone levels are maintained. Loss of One Night’s Sleep Decline in mental flexibility, attention, and creativity. Chronic Sleep Deprivation Impairment of brain cells necessary for learning and memory. The experience of hallucinations and delusions.
Trouble Sleeping?
Chronic Insomnia
Difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Occurs in 10% of adults. Causes of Chronic Insomnia Worry and anxiety. Psychological problems. Hot flashes during menopause. Physical problems (e.g., arthritis). Irregular or demanding schedule.
Sleep apnea
Sleep apnea Breathing briefly stops during sleep Individual momentarily awakens Causes of Sleep apnea Blockage of air passages Failure of the brain to control respiration properly
Trouble Sleeping?
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy
Involves sudden and unpredictable daytime
attacks of sleepiness or lapses into REM sleep.
Affects 27, 000 Canadians.
Causes of Narcolepsy
Degeneration of neurons in the hypothalamus.
Genetic factors.
Most adults need at least 8 or 9 hours of sleep
Two-thirds of Americans get fewer than 7 or 8
hours.
Most students get only about 6 hours.
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Exploring the Dream World
Dreams
A series of mental images, sounds, or other
sensations occurring during sleep.
Dreams may be vivid or vague, terrifying or
peaceful.
The focus of attention is inward, though
external events can influence the dream’s
content.
Exploring the Dream World
Lucid dream
A dream in which a person is aware that
they are dreaming.
May involve the ability to control the
action occurring in these dreams.
Dreams & REM
viewpoints
Viewpoint #1
Eye movements in dreams resemble those of
waking life.
Eyes and head move in synchrony with the content
of dreams.
Viewpoint #2
Eye movements are unrelated to the content of
dreams.
Dreams as Unconscious Wishes
- Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Dreams express human being’s unconscious wishes
and desires.
Desires and wishes are often sexual and violent in
nature.
Dreaming allows human beings to maintain their
sanity.
Reality is often distorted in dreams.
Distortion keeps anxiety at bay so our sleep will not
be distrupted.
Distressing thoughts and objects are translated into
symbolic images.
Threatening characters may be represented by less
threatening images.
- Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory….cont
A. Manifest content
B. Latent content
- Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory….cont
A. Manifest content
The aspects of dreams that we consciously experience during sleep.
Remember these aspects upon awakening.
B. Latent content
The unconscious wishes and thoughts expressed symbolically.
Should be analyzed in the context of the dreamer’s wakening life.
Supporters of Freudian Theory
- Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory….cont.
Supporters of Freudian Theory
Dreams have psychological meaning.
Critiques of Freudian Theory
Theory lacks reliable rules for interpreting the latent content of dreams.
No objective way to know whether a particular interpretation is correct.
Dreams as Efforts to Deal with Problems
- The Problem-focused approach
Dreams reflect the ongoing conscious
preoccupations of wakening life.
Symbols and metaphors reveal the true meaning
of a dream.
Example:
University students often experience test-anxiety
dreams:
Unprepared or unable to finish an exam.
Show up for the wrong exam.
Can not find the exam room.
Dreams provide people with the opportunity to
resolve their concerns.
Recovery may be related to particular patterns of
dreaming.
Recovery Dream Pattern:
First dream occurs early in the night.
Dreams last longer, and are more emotional
and story-like.
Dreams as Thinking
3. The Cognitive Approach
Emphasizes current concerns. Dreaming is a modification of the cognitive simulations of the real world. Dreaming draws on the same memories, knowledge, metaphors, and assumptions as wakefulness.
Female Dreams
Dream about family members, friendly
interactions, household objects, and clothes.
Male Dreams
Dream about strangers, weapons, violence,
sexual activity, and achievement.
Dreams as Thinking
Brain activity in dreams is similar to when awake.
Parts of the cerebral cortex are highly activated
during dreaming.
The brain just receives no sensory input and
feedback from the world during sleep.
Dreams as Interpreted Brain Activity
4. The Activation-synthesis Theory
- The Activation-synthesis Theory
I. Why are dreams often confusing?
The signals from the pons are random.
In turn, the cortex’s interpretation (i.e., dream) is
often incoherent and confusing.
II. Why are dreams quickly forgotten?
The cortical neurons that control the initial storage
of new memories are turned off during sleep.
The Activation-synthesis Theory
III.Why are dreams often emotionally charged?
The brain stem sets off responses in emotional and visual
parts of the brain.
Brain-stem cells produce acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter
that boosts activity in the brain’s emotional centres.
Brain regions that handle logical thought and sensations
from the external world are shut-down.
Critique of the Activation-synthesis Theory
Not all dreams are disjointed or bizarre.
Can not account for dreaming that occurs outside of REM
sleep.
Other brain mechanisms may be involved in dreams.
Many dreams reflect a person’s desires and goals.
The Nature of Hypnosis
Hypnosis
A procedure in which a practitioner suggests
changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts,
feelings or behaviour of the participant.
The Nature of Hypnosis
The Process:
The Process:
Hypnotist suggests that the participant feels
relaxed.
Hypnotist assures the participant they are sinking
“deeper and deeper”.
Participant is often encouraged to concentrate on a
colour or small object.
Participant’s focus of attention turns outward to
hypnotist’s voice.
The Nature of Hypnosis
1. The hypnotic state is not sleep.
- The hypnotic state is not sleep.
Hypnosis and sleep do not appear to have
comparable physiological responses.
A hypnotized person almost always remains
fully aware of what is going on.
They remember the experience, unless explicitly
instructed to forget.
- Hypnotic responsiveness depends on the efforts and qualities of the
person being hypnotized.
- Hypnotic responsiveness depends on the efforts and qualities of the
person being hypnotized.
Some people are more responsive to hypnosis.
Weakly related to the ability to become absorbed in activities and to
become involved in the world of imagination. - Hypnotized people can not be forced to do things against their will
No evidence that a hypnotized person will do anything against their
morals or that constitutes a real danger to themselves or others.
Hilgard’s (1977) Dissociation Theory
Dissociation
A split in consciousness in which one part of the mind
operates independently of others.
Hidden observer
The part of the mind that is not subject to hypnotic
suggestion.
Hypnotized volunteers submerged one arm in ice
water, a normally painful task.
Volunteers were told they would feel no pain.
Nonsubmerged hand would signal level of pain
by pressing a key.
Many people said they felt little or no pain
even while their free hand was busily pressing
the key.
Dissociation Theories
Supporters
Consistent with research on nonconscious mental
processing.
Consistent with modern brain theories.
Critiques
Hypnosis does not differ from normal consciousness.
Definition of hypnotic state is circular.
Sociocognitive Explanation
Hypnotized person is playing a role.
Similar to submitting to suggestions by parents,
teachers, and doctors.
Their role becomes so engrossing that their
actions may occur without their conscious intent.
Why do some participants report “memories” of alien
abductions?
Participant has a need to “escape the self”, by
turning control over to the hypnotist.
Hypnotist assumes control and shapes participant’s
story with subtle hints.
Why do participants often report experiences in a
past-life?
Participants are fulfilling role requirements.
Weaving events, places, and persons from their
present lives with the beliefs of the authoritative
hypnotist.
Classifying Drugs: Psychoactive Drugs
A drug capable of influencing perception, mood, cognition, or behaviour. Psychoactive drugs are taken for many reasons: To alter consciousness As part of a religious ritual For recreation To decrease physical pain For psychological escape
Some commonly used drugs fall outside the
four classifications.
steroids
1. Anabolic Steroids Synthetic derivatives of testosterone. Taken in pill form or by injection. Increase muscle mass and strength. General Side Effects Heart and liver disease . Severe acne. Halted growth, if taken before adolescent growth spurt. For Men Shrinking of the testicles Reduced sperm count Baldness Development of breasts For women Growth of facial hair Baldness Deepened voice
Classifying Drugs: Psychoactive Drugs
Marijuana
- Marijuana
Commonly referred to as “pot”, “grass”, and
“weed”.
Some researchers classify it as a mild
psychedelic.
The active ingredient is Tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC).
THC is derived from the hemp plant Cannabis
sativa.
In some respects, THC appears to be a mild
stimulant.
Increases heart rate.
Makes tastes, sounds, colours seem more
intense.
However, reactions to THC range from mild
euphoria to relaxation or sleepiness
Moderate doses
Interfere with the transfer of information to longterm
memory.
Large doses
Can cause hallucinations, and a sense of unreality.
Can impair coordination, concentration, visual
perception, and reaction times.
The Physiology of Drug Effects
Alcohol affects cognitive and emotional functioning: Judgment Perception Response time Coordination Balance Storage of memory
Heavy or frequent use of other recreational
drugs affects cognitive functioning:
Methamphetamine → poor performance on tests
of memory, attention, and movement.
Ecstasy → evidence of memory deficits.
The Physiology of Drug Effects
Tolerance
Withdrawal Symptoms
Tolerance
Increased resistance to a drug’s effects accompanying continued use.
More and more of the drug is needed to get the same effect.
Withdrawal Symptoms
Physical and psychological symptoms that occur when someone addicted
to a drug stops taking it.
Nausea abdominal cramps, sweating, muscle spasms, depression, and
sleeping problems
The Psychology of Drugs
The effects of drugs are not always automatic.
Reactions to psychoactive drugs involve many
factors:
1. Individual’s physical condition
2. Experience with the drug
3. Environmental setting
4. Mental sets
- Various physical factors affect people’s reactions
to psychoactive drugs:
Body weight
Metabolism
Initial state of emotional arousal
Physical tolerance for the drug
- Past experience with a drug affects an
individual’s reaction to it:
First-time users → neutral or unpleasant experience. Regular users → Reactions change when a person is more familiar with a drug’s effects.
. Environmental setting greatly affects the
response to a drug:
Drinking with friends → Happy and full of
energy.
Drinking with strangers → Fearful and
nervous.
- A person’s mental set has a powerful effect on
the chemical properties of a drug:
Mental set Expectations about the drug’s effects, as well as reasons for taking the drug. Often influence behaviour more than the chemical properties of the drug.
Cultural attitudes toward drugs vary with the
times:
Cultural attitudes toward drugs vary with the
times:
The Drug Debate
All Drugs are Good
Do not accept evidence that some drugs
have harmful effects.
All Drugs are Bad
Do not accept that some forms or amounts
of drugs may have beneficial effects.
People often hold rigid assumptions about psychoactive drugs:
Illegal drugs → 100% Dangerous.
Legal drugs → 100% Safe.
Legal drugs are not always safe
Prescription painkillers can be addictive.
Nicotine (legal) is as addictive as heroin and cocaine (illegal).
The Marijuana Debate
Canadian Law
1923 → Banned in Canada. July, 2001 → May be used for medical purposes. Current status → Should marijuana be decriminalized?
Research Findings on Marijuana:
- Heavy, prolonged use of marijuana poses some physical dangers.
- Memory and learning may be affected after long-term use.
- Marijuana use has some medical benefits
