Ch 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Neuron membrane
A
Two layers of lipids and large proteins
Selectively permeable to molecules and ions
2
Q
Resting potential
A
Negative on the inside, positive outside
3
Q
Ion channels
A
Large proteins in the neuron
Selectively permit the flow of specific ions in and out of neuron
4
Q
Voltage gated
A
An ion channel that opens and closes when the membrane reaches specific polarity
5
Q
Threshold potential
A
A specific membrane polarity that opens voltage gated ion channels
6
Q
Chemically gated
A
An ion channel that opens and closes by such chemicals as a neurotransmitter
7
Q
Action potential
A
Temporary reversal of membrane polarity caused by voltage gated ion channels reaching their threshold.
8
Q
Axon initial segment (AIS)
A
The segment of an ion just past the axon hillock where an electrical signal (action potential) begins
9
Q
Axon hillock
A
The place where the axon meets the cell body
10
Q
Depolarized
A
A reduction of membrane potential of a neuron caused when Na+ channels open and Na+ enters the neuron Selectively permit
11
Q
Repolarization
A
When polarity of neuron is restored
K+ channels opening and k+ leaves neuron
12
Q
Hyperpolarized
A
An increase of polarity of a neuron from resting potential. Reduces the likelyhood of an action potential
13
Q
Absolute refractory period
A
1-2 msec after an action potential starts, when another action potential cannot be generated
14
Q
Relative refractory period
A
When membrane potential is hyperpolarized, making a new action potential difficult but not impossible
15
Q
Relative refractory period
A
When membrane potential is hyperpolarized, making a new action potential difficult but not impossible
16
Q
All or none law
A
The rule that once an action potential starts, it does not stop or diminish in strength
17
Q
Saltatory conduction
A
In a myelinated axon, it is the bouncing of action potentials from one node of ranvier to the next, increasing the speed of the action potential moving down the axon
18
Q
Sodium potassium pump
A
A process of pulling three sodium ions out of the neuron for every two potassium ions that are pumped in. Requires ATP
19
Q
synapse
A
A place where two neurons communicate with one another.
20
Q
axodendritic
A
When an axon from one neuron communicates with the dendrite of another neuron.
21
Q
axosomatic
A
When an axon from one neuron communicates with the soma (cell body) of another neuron
22
Q
axoaxonic
A
When an axon from one neuron communicates with the axon of another neuron.
23
Q
dendritic spines
A
Small protuberances that are along the dendrites. They often meet terminal boutons of axons from other neurons to form a synapse.
24
Q
electrical synapse
A
A connection between two cells where they are physically connected and cytoplasm can flow between gap junctions.
25
gap junctions
In an electrical synapse, the place where two neurons are attached to one another to allow the flow of molecules and ions between them through connexons.
26
connexon
An assembly of six proteins embedded in a neuron membrane that forms a pore. Connexons from two neurons connect to form a large channel between them.
27
chemical synapse
A type of synapse where the terminal bouton of one neuron communicates with another neuron, but the neurons do not touch.
28
synaptic cleft
A tiny space between the terminal bouton on the presynaptic cell and the postsynaptic cell.
29
exocytosis
The release of neurotransmitters when a vesicle fuses with the membrane of a terminal bouton. This process is initiated by Ca⁺⁺.
30
ligand
Any chemical that binds to a receptor, including neurotransmitters, hormones, and certain drugs and chemicals.
31
ionotropic
A neurotransmitter receptor that opens ion channels directly.
32
metabotropic
A neurotransmitter receptor that affects an ion channel through a second messenger system.
33
neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers released from vesicles in presynaptic cells that act as keys fitting into receptors on postsynaptic cells.
34
excitation
When a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood of an action potential on the postsynaptic neuron. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter.
35
inhibition
When a neurotransmitter reduces the likelihood of an action potential on the postsynaptic neuron. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
36
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
When a postsynaptic neuron depolarizes, increasing the likelihood of an action potential.
37
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
When a postsynaptic neuron hyperpolarizes or is prevented from depolarizing, decreasing the likelihood of an action potential.
38
graded potentials
This is not an all-or-none polarity change like an action potential but has levels of strength that can ultimately influence the production of an action potential.
39
summation
The combined influences of EPSPs and IPSPs that determine the rate of action potentials.
40
spatial summation
The additive influence on action potentials of EPSPs and IPSPs generated at different locations on the neuron.
41
Temporal summation
The additive influence on action potentials of EPSPs or IPSPs occurring in rapid succession.
42
axoplasmic transport
A process by which vesicles are moved down the axon along microtubules.
43
agonists
Chemicals that help a neurotransmitter function. SSRIs are agonists for serotonin.
44
antagonists
Chemicals that hinder a neurotransmitter from functioning. Haloperidol is a dopamine antagonist.
45
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A common neurotransmitter throughout the brain and body. It works at the neuromuscular junction. It has two types of receptors, muscarinic and nicotinic.
46
Glutamate
The most common excitatory neurotransmitter. The receptors are kainite, NMDA, and AMPA.
47
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter.
48
Glycine
A less common inhibitory neurotransmitter.
49
Monoamines
A class of neurotransmitters created from a single amino acid. Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine, and serotonin are all monoamines.
50
Dopamine
An excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter with D1, D2 . . . as the receptor types. Dopamine has several important functions, including motivation, addiction, and motor movements.
51
Norepinephrine
An excitatory neurotransmitter in higher concentration in the central nervous system. The major noradrenergic pathway starts in the locus coeruleus in the brainstem and is involved in arousal.
52
Epinephrine
An excitatory neurotransmitter in higher concentrations in the peripheral nervous system.
53
Serotonin
An excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter that serves many functions, including mood, sleep, hunger, and pain. The major serotonergic pathway begins in the raphe nucleus in the brainstem.
54
Histamines
Neurotransmitters found in the hypothalamus involved in allergic reaction, arousal, and attention.
55
Neuropeptides
Small neurotransmitters that work in conjunction with other neurotransmitters. They serve a number of functions beyond signaling other neurons, including gene expression, the activity of glial cells, blood flow, and pain perception.
56
Endogenous opioids
A type of neuropeptide that is involved in pain perception and sexual activity.
57
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are antidepressants because they inhibit enzymes that break apart monoamines.
58
reuptake
A process where neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft and taken back into the presynaptic cell for repackaging into vesicles.
59
connectomics
A new branch of neuroscience focused on mapping the brain using connections between neurons.
60
connectome
A map of the connections between neurons of an animal
61
Empiricism
The philosophy that knowledge comes from observation of the natural world. It is the first step in the scientific method.
62
Hypothesis
A statement of prediction or explanation of how something in nature functions. It comes from empirical observation, and it is testable.
63
Experimentation
A method in science involving manipulated and recorded variables. Results of a well-controlled experiment should support or fail to support a hypothesis.
64
independent variables
Components of an experiment that are manipulated by the researcher.
65
dependent variables
Quantifiable measurements recorded in an experiment that may or may not be influenced by levels of an independent variable.
66
double-blind research design
A way to control subjectivity in an experiment because the researchers and participants are unaware which groups get the levels of an independent variable until the research is completed.
67
Theory
A statement of explanation of a natural event that is well supported by evidence. A theory reflects on hypotheses and is supported by results of experimentation.
68
Replication
The idea that results in research should be replicated and certainly replicable.
69
meta-analysis
A method of evaluating data from many research experiments and articles to look for reliable trends.
70
general process approach
The idea that many biological and psychological principles are the same or similar in many species. This justifies the use of fruit flies to investigate DNA and rats to investigate neuroscience.
71
transgenic mice
An animal model for research where genes from one organism are spliced into a mouse. Transgenic mice are often used to investigate specific neurological diseases.
72
knockout mice
Mice that are used as animal models in research where a gene or several genes are made inactive. There are knockout mice used to investigate such things as aging, anxiety, neurodegenerative diseases, and obesity.
73
lesion
A method of damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain to observe the resulting changes in behavior.
74
cannula
A thin tube surgically implanted into the nervous system of animals to inject specific chemicals.
75
gold thioglucose (GTG)
t is a chemical used to selectively destroy specific nervous tissue.
76
microdialysis probe
A technique for extracting tiny quantities of chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, from specific locations in the nervous system.
77
Stereotaxic surgery
A method used on animals, including humans, where the head is secured and microelectrodes or cannulas are inserted into a very specific location.
78
sham control
In research, a group that receives the same experience as an experimental group except for the independent variable.
79
microtome
A device that cuts extremely thin tissue slices and is important for neurohistology research.
80
neurohistology
The study of tissue and cells of the nervous system.
81
Golgi staining method
A method of staining individual neurons using potassium dichromate and silver nitrate that only stains some neurons black and not others.
82
neuron doctrine
A theory proposed by Santiago Ramón y Cajal that the nervous system is made of individual neurons as opposed to an interconnected web.
83
Nissl stain
A technique for staining proteins within the cell body of a neuron.
84
Green fluorescent proteins (GFP)
Proteins from bioluminescent animals such as jellyfish and corals that are used in a staining technique to make neurons glow in the dark.
85
Brainbow
A transgenic mouse whose neurons express different forms of the genes for GFP, giving the mouse's nervous system a rainbow of colors.
86
immunostaining
A staining technique that uses antibodies found in the immune system to stain cells.
87
NeuN
A method of immunostaining that stains different proteins found in the nucleus of different types of neurons.
88
Anterograde tracing
A way to trace the path of an axon.
89
retrograde tracing
A tracing technique where a molecule is taken up by the terminal end of the axon and transported back to the cell body.
90
viral neuronal tracing
way of tracing a neuron by infecting it with a virus that contains specific tracer proteins.
91
electrocardiogram (ECG)
A noninvasive device to measure heart activity including heartbeats, heart rate, and heart rate variability.
92
Heart rate variability (HRV)
A measure of the variability between each heartbeat. Low variability can be an indication of stress or difficulty with attention.
93
Electrodermal activity (EDA)
A measure of slight perspiration on the skin as an indication of arousal.
94
Electromyography (EMG)
A measurement of muscle contraction. It can be used to look at microexpression in the face.
95
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A method for recording the electrical activity of the cerebral cortex by placing electrodes at specific locations on the scalp.
96
continuous recordings
A type of EEG research most interested in patterns of brain waves over an extended period. It is often used in sleep research.
97
event-related potentials (ERPs)
Research using an EEG that looks at specific brain waves that are time locked to particular cognitive or motor events.
98
Bereitschaftspotential (BP)
Also known as the readiness potential, an ERP recorded just before a planned motor movement.
99
BOLD-contrast imaging
An fMRI technique that tracks blood flow and so is an accurate measure of increased and decreased brain activity.
100
BOLD-contrast imaging
An fMRI technique that tracks blood flow and so is an accurate measure of increased and decreased brain activity.
101
Voxels
A small unit of spatial resolution in fMRI brain imaging that is between one and five cubic millimeters.
102
Voxels
A small unit of spatial resolution in fMRI brain imaging that is between one and five cubic millimeters.
103
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
An imaging technique that uses special MRI scans and computer software to map the diffusion of water molecules in brain tissue
104
tractography
A method for tracing white matter tracts in the brain using DTI
105
PET scan
An imaging method that uses injected radioactive isotopes coupled with specific molecules, and so can look at the active brain.
106
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A new imaging technique that maps precise brain activity by recording magnetic fields.
107
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
An instrument that applies low-frequency electrical stimulation to specific areas of the brain.
108
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
This applies magnetic fields to the brain dampening the activity of specific areas.
109
deep brain stimulation (DBS)
A method for surgically implanting electrodes into localized areas of the brain
110
Biofeedback
A method for learning to control the body and processes that are typically out of conscious control. It uses physiological monitors and principles of associative learning.
111
brain-computer interface (BCI)
A method for using brain activity such as EEG recordings to control computers.
112
brain-machine interface (BMI)
A method for using brain activity to control machines such as robots.
113
BrainGate
A company that uses recording devices implanted onto the motor cortex that then control computers or robots.
114
Declarative memory
Explicit memories. Ex: how to do a math problem
115
Nondeclarative memories
Implicit memories. Not well controlled
116
Theoretical law of effect
Learned association takes place between an initiating stimulus and a target response
117
Aplysia
Marine sea slug with a simple nervous system that is often used as an animal model to investigate the physiology of simple learning
118
Activity dependent facilitation
Pairing stimuli in classical conditioning produces a change in the synapse activated by the two stimuli
119
Interpositus
An area of the cerebellum that is inportant in eyeblink conditioning
120
Delayed response task
Type of research procedure to investigate working memory
121
Consolidation
Converting short term memory to long term memory. Hippocampus
122
Entorhinal cortex
Area outside the hippocampus proper that sends signals to the dentate gyrus through the performant pathway
123
Hebb’s rule
If a synapse is active while a postsynaptic cell is depolarized, then the chemical and structural changes will occur that strengthen the connection between cells
124
Long term potentiation
A physical representation of learning
125
Long term depression
Process of weakening connections between neurons. The biological basis of forgetting
126
Neural plasticity
The ability of the brain to constantly change
127
Engram
Physical or anatomical representation of a memory
128
Equipotentiality
Memories are distributed relatively equally around the brain
129
Episodic memories
Memories of past events or episodes of one life
130
Semantic memory
General knowledge that a person has gained throughout life
131
Spatial memory
Memories involved in interpreting environment
132
Morris water maze
Research for spatial memory. Rat or mouse is placed in a tube of opaque water. There is a platform for rest
133
Place cells
Cells that respond to specific locations
134
Grid cells
Respond in a grid like pattern representing an animals environment
135
Anterograde amnesia
Difficulty creating new memories
136
Retrograde amnesia
Difficult recalling memories
137
Korsakoff syndrome
A disease caused by chronic alcohol use that affects memory
138
HM
Famous case study. Epilepsy prevented his ability to convert short term memory to long term memory
139
Hm
Famous case study. Epilepsy prevented his ability to convert short term memory to long term
140
Nootropics
Drugs that facilitate cognition, attention, and memory
141
Psychostimulants
Ritalin or adderall
142
Doogie mouse
Genetically engineered to have better memory
143
