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BIOL 2302 Anatomy & Physiology II > CH. 20: Respiratory System > Flashcards

CH. 20: Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

What is the function of the respiratory system?

A

The air passageway moves air between the external environment and the alveoli of the lungs

The site of gas exchange enables oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse across the barrier between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries

Detects odor by olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity

Sound production is where vocal cords of the larynx vibrate as air is passed between them

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2
Q

What is the structural organization of the respiratory system?

A

Upper Respiratory Tract
-Nose
-Nasal Cavity
-Pharynx

Lower Respiratory Tract
-Larynx
-Trachea
-Bronchi
-Bronchioles
-Alveoli

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3
Q

What is the functional organization of the respiratory system?

A

Conducting Zone - nose to terminal bronchioles

Respiratory Zone - respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

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4
Q

What is the mucosal lining?

A

The lining of the respiratory tract is layered by:
-epithelium
-basement membrane
-lamina propria

Gets progressively thinner the deeper the structure
(pseudostratified ciliated columnar -> simple columnar -> simple cuboidal -> simple squamous) EXCEPT in the pharynx and larynx

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5
Q

What are the mucus and its components?

A

The secretion produced by and covering the mucosa produced by goblet cells and lamina propia (mucous and serous glands)

Composition:
-Mucin (sticky mucus protein)
-Lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)
-Defensins (antimicrobial proteins)
-IgA (antibodies)

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6
Q

What are the nose and nostrils?

A

Nose
-Main conducting passageway for inhaled air formed by the bone, hyaline cartilage, dense irregular CT, and converted with skin externally

Nostrils (Nares)
-Open into the inferior surface of the nose leading into the nasal cavity

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7
Q

What is the nasal cavity anatomy?

A

It is the internal space formed by the nose (anterior) and skull (superior & posterior)

Composition:
-Floor (hard palate)
-Roof (composed of bones of the skull and nose cartilage)
-Nasal Septum
-Nasal Conchae
-Nasal Meatus

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8
Q

What is the nasal septum?

A

It divides the nose into two chambers and is formed by nasal septal cartilage and bone (vomer and ethmoid)

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9
Q

What is the nasal conchae?

A

These are the lateral walls where it is three paired projections (superior, middle, and inferior) referred to as the turbinate bones

It produce turbulence in the inhaled air

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10
Q

What is the nasal meatus?

A

Partitions formed by conchae and is immediately inferior to their corresponding conchae

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11
Q

What is the nasal cavity function?

A

-Warms the air to body temperature
-Cleanses the air
-Humidifies

It is enhanced by conchae due to turbulence

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12
Q

What is the pharynx and the components?

A

It is the throat that is posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx

It conducts air and food along its entire length

Lateral walls are composed of skeletal muscle that aids in swallowing and propelling food down the esophagus

3 Regions:
-Nasopharynx
-Oropharynx
-Laryngopharynx

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13
Q

What is the nasopharynx?

A

The superior-most region of the pharynx is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Posterior to the nasal cavity

Lateral walls house the openings to the auditory tubes to equalize pressure in the middle ear

The posterior wall houses the pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)

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14
Q

What is the oropharynx?

A

It is the middle region of the pharynx and is lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Posterior to the oral cavity

Lateral walls house the palatine tonsils

Lingual tonsils located at the base of the tongue

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15
Q

What is the laryngopharynx?

A

It is the inferior region of the pharynx and is lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Posterior to the larynx

Serves as common passageway for food and air with oropharynx

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16
Q

What is the larynx and its components?

A

It is the voice box that is continuous with the laryngopharynx (superior) and trachea (inferior)

Composed of cartilage and supported by muscle and ligaments

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17
Q

What is the function of the larynx?

A

Passageway for air

Prevents ingested materials from entering the respiratory tract by the EPIGLOTTIS closing over the laryngeal inlet (opening) and glottis closes during swallowing

Produces sound for speech via the glottis where the vibration of the vocal folds is caused by air passing between them through the RIMA GLOTTIDIS

Assists in increasing pressure in abdominal cavity by sneezing and cough reflex

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18
Q

What are the trachea and its components?

A

The windpipe that extends through the mediastinum from the larynx to the main bronchi

Lateral and anterior walls consist of C-shaped rings of TRACHEAL CARTILAGE and ANULAR LIGAMENTS

The posterior wall consists of TRACHEALIS MUSCLE allowing for distention during food swallowing and contraction during coughing

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19
Q

What are the components of the wall of trachea?

A

It is mucosa consists of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells & lamina propria

Acts as a MUCOCILIARY ESCALATOR that traps particles to sweep them to the pharynx to be swallowed

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20
Q

What are the components of the bronchial tree?

A

-Main bronchi (primary bronchi)
-Lobar bronchi (secondary bronchi)
-Segmental bronchi (tertiary bronchi)
-6 to 9 more levels
-Terminal bronchioles
-Respiratory bronchioles

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21
Q

What is the main bronchi?

A

Trachea splits into two branches at the level of the manubrium and body of the sternum

Right bronchus is shorter

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22
Q

What are the lobar bronchi?

A

Extend to teach lobe of the lung from the main bronchi

Right lung has 3 lobes, so it has 3 bronchi

Left lung has 2 lobes, so it has 2 bronchi

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23
Q

What are the segmental bronchi?

A

Extend from the lobar bronchi serving the bronchopulmonary segment

Right lung has 10 segmental bronchi

Left lung has 9-10 segmental bronchi

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24
Q

What is the difference between the terminal and respiratory bronchioles?

A

Terminal bronchioles are the last segment of the conducting zone

Respiratory bronchioles are the first segment of the respiratory zone

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25
Q

What are bronchi?

A

They are incomplete rings (hyaline cartilage) that ensure that bronchi remain open

The extent of cartilage decreases in size and number as the bronchi branch increases

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26
Q

What are bronchioles?

A

They lack cartilage, are small in diameter, and have a proportionally thicker layer of smooth muscle to regulate the flow of air

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27
Q

What are the components of the respiratory zone?

A

-Respiratory bronchioles
-Alveolar ducts
-Alveolar sacs
-Alveoli

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28
Q

What are alveolar ducts?

A

It leads in alveolar sacs

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29
Q

What are alveolar sacs?

A

A cluster of interconnected alveoli

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30
Q

What are alveoli?

A

Small sac-like structures for gas exchange

1 to 4 sacs * 106 per lung

Interconnected with other alveoli by alveolar pores to provide collateral ventilation

Capillaries surround each alveolus

The interalveolar septum contains elastic fibers

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31
Q

What is the difference between type I and type II alveolar cells?

A

Type I:
-Most abundant (95%) and flattened cells that forms the thin barrier through which gas exchange occurs

Type II:
-Secrete pulmonary surfactant that opposes alveolar collapse

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32
Q

What are alveolar macrophages?

A

Engulf pathogens and dust and reside within the alveolus

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33
Q

What are the components of the respiratory membrane?

A

It is a thin barrier where gases diffuse between the alveoli and the capillaries providing a vast amount of surface area

Consists of:
-alveolar epithelium and basement membrane
-capillary endothelium and basement membrane

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34
Q

What is a pulmonary surfactant?

A

Secreted by type II alveolar cells

Composed of like-charged lipids & proteins

Lowers alveolar surface tension by:
-Increasing pulmonary compliance
-Reduces lung recoil ability
-Decreases surface tension to a greater degree in smaller alveoli
-Equilibirates pressure between alveoli of varying size

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35
Q

What is the structure of the lungs?

A

Paired structures where:
-Costal surface lies adjacent to the ribs
-Mediastinal surface lies against the mediastinum
-Diaphragmatic surface is the base that rests on the diaphragm muscle

Lobes are organized with bronchopulmonary segments:
-Is an autonomous unit with a CT capsule
-Possess own segmental bronchus, pulmonary artery & vein, and lymph vessels

Segments are organized into lobules and are supplied by:
-Terminal bronchiole
-Arteriole
-Venule
-Lymph vessel

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36
Q

What is the structural difference between the right and left lungs?

A

Right Lung:
-Slightly larger and has 3 lobes

Left Lung:
-Accommodates the heart and has 2 lobes

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37
Q

What is the pleura?

A

Outer lung surfaces and adjacent internal thoracic wall are lined with a double-walled serous membrane:
-Visceral pleura = lung surface
-Parietal pleura = thoracic wall, diaphragm, & mediastinum

Composed of simple squamous epithelium

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38
Q

What is the pleural cavity?

A

Located between visceral and parietal membranes filled with serous fluid to minimalize friction

39
Q

What components is respiration consists of?

A

It is the exchange of respiratory gases between the ATM and tissues of the body consisting of:
-Pulmonary Ventilation
-Alveolar Gas Exchange
-Gas Transport
-Systemic Gas Exchange

40
Q

What is pulmonary ventilation?

A

Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between ATM and alveoli
-ATM air with more oxygen inhaled during inspiration
-alveolar air with more carbon dioxide during expiration

41
Q

What is alveolar gas exchange?

A

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveoli and blood
-oxygen diffuses from alveoli to blood down pressure gradient
-carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to alveoli down pressure gradient

42
Q

What is gas transport?

A

Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and system cells
-oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported through blood

43
Q

What is the systemic gas exchange?

A

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between systemic cells & blood
-oxygen diffuses from blood to cells down pressure gradient
-carbon dioxide diffuses from cells to blood down pressure gradient

44
Q

What is lung inflation dependent on?

A

Expanding properties of the chest wall due to surface tension caused by the serous fluid

Recoiling properties of the lungs

Anatomic arrangement of the pleural cavity where the thoracic wall pulls out & lungs pull in to create a “suction” due to surface tension (pressure in cavity < pressure in lungs)

45
Q

What is airflow? What is it dependent on?

A

The amount of air that moves in & out of the lungs

Dependent on:
-Pressure gradient
-Resistance

46
Q

What is Boyle’s law?

A

At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the container increases (and vice versa)

47
Q

What are pressure gradients?

A

The difference in pressure between two areas (external environment and alveoli)

Gas flows from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure (small changes in pressure = movement of large volumes of gas)

48
Q

What is atmospheric pressure?

A

Pressure exerted by the atmosphere around us

760 mmHg

49
Q

What is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

Pressure in the lungs/alveoli that rise and fall within breathing

Equalizes with atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg)

50
Q

What is intrapleural pressure?

A

The pressure inside the pleural cavity that rises and falls with breathing

4 mmHg less than atmospheric pressure = 756 mmHg

51
Q

What is transpulmonary pressure?

A

Difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure

Recoil pressure

-4 mmHg but changes in response to breathing

52
Q

What is vertical volume change?

A

Results from changes in the position of the thoracic floor

Floor dropping = increases volume

Floor returning to original position = decreases volume

53
Q

What is lateral volume change?

A

Results from changes in the position of the ribs

Elevation of ribs = widens cage

Depression of ribs = narrow cage

54
Q

What is anterior-posterior volume change?

A

Results from movement of the sternum occurring in conjunction with lateral movement

Elevation of ribs and sternum = widens cage

Depression of ribs and sternum = narrows cage

55
Q

What does pulmonary ventilation consist of?

A

Breathing (inspiration, expiration, quiet breathing, and forced breathing)

Same physiological processes:
-Autonomic nuclei in brainstem stimulate the skeletal muscle to cycle between contraction and relaxation of the lung
-Thoracic cage changes volume = change in pressure = air moves along the pressure gradients

56
Q

What is inspiration?

A

Diaphragm and external intercostal contract
-Ribs are drawn up and outward; the floor is pulled downward
-Thoracic walls and floor pull on pleura
-Pleura pulls on lungs

Air is drawn into the lungs to move until equilibrium is reached (tidal volume)

57
Q

What are the muscles used in quiet breathing?

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals

58
Q

What is expiration?

A

Diaphragm and external intercostal relax

Ribs & floor move back to the original position (decrease volume in the thoracic cage)

Thoracic walls and floor push on pleura (increased pressure in pleura and plural cavity relaxes)

Pleaura pushes on lungs (lungs recoil and increase pressure within alveoli)

59
Q

What is forced breathing?

A

Vigorous breathing involved the same steps as inhalation and exhalation but more air moves in and out

Active process

Requires the contraction of the accessory breathing muscles

60
Q

What are the muscles used in forced inspiration?

A

-Sternocleidomastoid
-Scalene
-Pectoralis Minor
-Serratus Posterior Superior
-Erector Spinae

61
Q

What are the muscles used in forced expiration?

A

-Internal Intercostals
-Abdominal Muscles
-Transversus Thoracis
-Serratus Posterior Inferior

62
Q

What is pressure gradient?

A

Difference in pressure between the external environment and the alveoli (atmospheric pressure - alveoli pressure)

Direct relationship with airflow

Altered by the volume of the thoracic cage

63
Q

What is resistance?

A

Determined mostly by the diameters of the conducting tubes

Opposes airflow and has an inverse relationship with it

Altered by:
-Decrease in elasticity of chest wall or lungs (increase R)
-Change in bronchiolar diameter (increase diameter = decrease R)
-Collapse of alveoli (increase surface tension = increase R)

64
Q

What is the difference between compliance & elastic recoil?

A

Compliance - how much effort is required to stretch/distend the lung

Elastance (Elastic Recoil) - how readily do the lungs rebound after being stretched

65
Q

What do compliance and elastic recoil share?

A

Responsible for lung responsiveness:
-Low compliance = greater resistance = more work to expand lungs = steeper pressure gradient to maintain airflow
-Low elastance = more air remaining in the lung after stretching = increase in intra-alveolar pressure = more work to push out

Affected by the amount of elastin present and alveolar surface tension

66
Q

What measures oxygen volumes and capacities?

A

Spirometer

67
Q

What are the 4 respiratory volumes?

A

-Tidal volume (TV)
-Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
-Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
-Residual volume (RV)

68
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

Volume of air entering/leaving the lung per breath

69
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

Volume of air maximally inspired over tidal volume

70
Q

What is expiratory reserve volume?

A

Volume of air maximally expired over tidal volume

71
Q

What is residual volume?

A

Minimum volume of air remaining in lungs after maximal expiration (cannot be directly measured)

72
Q

What are the 4 respiratory capacities?

A

-Inspirational capacity (IC)
-Functional residual capacity (FRC)
-Vital capacity (VC)
-Total lung capacity (TLC)

73
Q

What is inspirational capacity?

A

Maximal volume of air that can be inspired after quiet expiration

IC = TV + IRV

74
Q

What is functional residual capacity?

A

Volume in lungs at the end of passive expiration

FRC = ERV + RV

75
Q

What is vital capacity?

A

Maximal volume of air that can be moved out after maximal inspiration

VC = IRV + TV + ERV

76
Q

What is total lung capacity?

A

Maximal volume of air lungs can hold

TLC = ERV + IRV + RV + VT

77
Q

What are the various lung capacities?

A

Max capacity = 4300ml to 5800ml

During quiet breathing = 2700ml inspired & 2200ml expired

During forced expiration = 1200ml

78
Q

What is forced expiratory volume?

A

Percentage of the vital capacity that can be expelled in a specific time period

FEV1 in healthy person = 75-85% of VC

79
Q

What is maximum voluntary ventilation?

A

The greatest amount of air that can be inhaled then exhaled in 1 minute by breathing quickly and deeply as possible

80
Q

What is pulmonary ventilation?

A

Volume of air breathed in/out in 1 minute

PV = TV * RR

Increases if tidal volume and respiratory rate both increase (but the tidal volume increases more because it elevates alveolar ventilation)

81
Q

What is anatomic dead space?

A

The volume of air that doesn’t enter the alveoli nor exit the airways during inspiration or expiration

Volume of air unavailable for gas exchange

Result = alveolar ventilation (AV) < pulmonary ventilation (PV)

AV = (TV - anatomic dead space) * RR

82
Q

What is Dalton’s Law?

A

The total pressure of a gas in a mixture is equal to the sum of the individual partial pressures

83
Q

What is a partial pressure gradient?

A

Difference between partial pressure in capillary & the surrounding tissue

Gases move down partial pressure gradients by simple diffusion (passive)

When gas is dissolved in liquid, it still exerts a partial pressure

84
Q

Is alveolar air equal to inspired air?

A

No, partial pressure in alveoli is different than partial pressure in the atmosphere because:
-Atmospheric air mixes with air in anatomic dead space
-Oxygen is always diffusing into the blood, carbon dioxide is always diffusing out of the blood
-More water vapor in lungs than atmosphere

Results in a lower percentage of oxygen & higher percentage of carbon dioxide in alveoli and modified partial pressures

Alveolar partial pressure stay more/less constant due to rhythmic exchange as we breathe

85
Q

What is partial pressure like in systemic cells?

A

Oxygen is used during cellular respiration and carbon dioxide is produced
-Oxygen partial pressure decreases due to the movement of oxygen from the blood to the cells to fuel cellular respiration
-Carbon dioxide partial pressure increases the movement of carbon dioxide out of the cells into the blood as a waste product of cellular respiration

Systemic partial pressure stay more/less constant due to the continuous production of carbon dioxide and consumption of oxygen

86
Q

What are the factors that influence gas transfers (other than partial pressure)?

A

Surface area is increased by opening more capillaries and increased alveolar space due to increase tidal volume

Thickness increases causing less diffusion

The diffusion coefficient of the gas is a constant value for each gas and is related to solubility in lung tissues & MW (carbon dioxide difusses more rapidly than oxygen)

87
Q

What is Henry’s Law?

A

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is dependent on:
-Partial pressure in the air (the more partial pressure in the air, the greater the driving force into the liquid, and vice versa)
-The solubility coefficient of the gas in liquid (carbon dioxide solubility > oxygen solubility by 20x)

88
Q

What is the net diffusion of oxygen & carbon dioxide?

A

Oxygen:
-First occurs between alveoli & blood then between blood * tissues due to continuous replenishment of alveolar oxygen

Carbon Dioxide:
-First occurs between the tissues & blood then between blood & alveoli due to the continuous production of carbon dioxide

89
Q

What happens in alveolar gas exchange?

A
90
Q

What is ventilation-perfusion coupling?

A

Serve to match blood flow with airflow to maximize gas exchange

Ventilation:
-Bronchioles dilate due to increased partial pressure of carbon dioxide in alveoli (vice versa)

Perfusion:
-Arterioles dilate due to increased partial pressure of oxygen or decreased partial pressure of carbon dioxide

91
Q

What happens when perfusion is greater than ventilation and vice versa?

A

Perfusion > Ventilation:
-Bronchioles dilate and arterioles constrict

Perfusion < Ventilation:
-Bronchioles constrict and arterioles dilate

92
Q

What happens in systemic gas exchange?

A
93
Q

What happens in oxygen transport?

A
94
Q

What happens in carbon dioxide transport?

A

BIOL 2302 Anatomy & Physiology II (5 decks)

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