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BIOL 2302 Anatomy & Physiology II > CH. 17 Blood > Flashcards

CH. 17 Blood Flashcards

1
Q

What is blood generally characterized as?

A

Connective tissue in the body that moves within the cardiovascular system to evenly distribute cellular elements in the liquid plasma

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2
Q

What is blood consist of?

A

Plasma (fluid matrix) and formed elements (specialized blood cells)

Formed elements are erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), platelets

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3
Q

What is the function of blood?

A

Transportation of oxygen, hormones, & nutrients to the tissues

Removal of metabolic wastes from cells

Regulation of heat, pH, and adequate fluid volume

Protection of blood loss through clotting and infection

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4
Q

What are some general characteristics of plasma?

A

Accounts for ~55% of the total volume

Medium for materials carried in the blood

Composed of ~90% water and inorganic & organic components

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5
Q

What are some characteristics of plasma proteins?

A

Establish osmatic gradient between blood and interstitial fluid to help maintain blood volume and pressure

Primarily made in the liver

Partially responsible for buffering the blood (neutralizing)

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6
Q

What are the common plasma proteins and their functions?

A

Albumins (~58%) bind to many substances for transport

Globulins (~37%) either transport lipids and ions or are antibodies

Fibrinogen (~4%) is key for hemostasis (blood clotting)

Enzymes and other hormones (<1%) for regulating

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7
Q

What are the types of globulins?

A

Alpha globulins transport lipids and some metal ions acting as a regulator

Beta globulins transport lipids and iron ions

Gamma globulins are antibodies (immunoglobulins)

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8
Q

What is packed cell volume and its percentages?

A

Percentage of the total volume of all the formed elements

Hematocrit (erythrocyte/RBCs) is around 42-45% of the total volume and is slightly higher in males

Buffy coat (leukocytes, WBCs, & platelets) is around 1% of the total volume

Plasma is located on top of the buffy coat

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9
Q

What are the characteristics of formed elements?

A

They consist of erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets)

Made in the bone marrow but are continuously replaced due to only surviving for a few days

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10
Q

What are hematopoiesis and its process?

A

It is the production of the formed elements that occurs in the bone marrow of specific bones

It starts with the hemocytoblast (stem cell) that either differentiates along either the myeloid line or lymphoid line

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11
Q

What are pluripotent cells?

A

Cells that can differentiate into many different types of cells but are still committed to a specific path of cell types such as a hemocytoblast

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12
Q

If a hemocytoblast goes through the myeloid line or lymphoid line, what would occur?

A

Myeloid Line:
-Erythropoiesis (RBCs)
-All leukocytes THAT ARE NOT lymphocytes
-Megakaryocytes (produce platelets)

Lymphoid Line:
-Lymphocytes

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13
Q

What are the characteristics of erythropoiesis?

A

Occurs in the red bone marrow depending if in utero, in children, or adults:
-Utero: no red bone marrow so occurs in yolk sac, liver, or spleen
-Children: most bones contain red bone marrow
-Adults: red bone marrow is limited to the sternum, ribs, upper and ends of the long bone

Goes through commitment, development, and maturation

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14
Q

What occurs in the commitment step of erythropoiesis?

A

Results from Multi-CSF and commits myeloid stem cell to become proerythroblast where it no longer can become any other type of cells

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15
Q

What occurs in the development step of erythropoiesis?

A

It is under the influence of EPO where the proerythroblast goes through ribosome synthesis for the production of hemoglobin & iron accumulation

Proerythroblast becomes orthochromatic erythroblast (normoblast) to eject organelles and nucleus

Normoblast becomes reticulocyte to enter circulation. It still lacks organelles except for ribosomes and still produces hemoglobin

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16
Q

What occurs in the maturation step of erythropoiesis?

A

Reticulocyte becomes a mature erythrocyte degrading the organelles and nucleus

It now contains hemoglobin and a plasma membrane

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17
Q

What are the characteristics of erythrocytes?

A

Responsible for the transport of oxygen due to containing hemoglobin which makes up 97% of the contents of the cell

Flat, disc-like, bi-concave discs allow for oxygen to diffuse rapidly between the interior and exterior of the cell and stack and line in rouleau as they pass through capillaries

No nucleus and organelles

Generate ATP via anaerobic mechanisms like the ETC

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18
Q

What are hemoglobins and their characteristics?

A

They are red-pigmented protein in RBCs that binds easily and reversibly to oxygen

Consists of:
-Globin with four polypeptide chains (2 alphas and 2 beta chains)
-Heme is a pigment element that carries iron to bind to oxygen and includes 4 groups (one for each globin)

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19
Q

What are the types of hemoglobin?

A

Oxyhemoglobin: oxygen binds to iron

Deoxyhemoglobin: reduced hemoglobin where oxygen detaches from it

Carbaminohemoglobin: an allosteric binding of hemoglobin to carbon dioxide

Carboxyhemoglobin: destroys the hemoglobin by competitive binding

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20
Q

What factors affect erythropoiesis?

A

Testosterone acts on the kidney to up-regulate EPO production

Environmental factors such as altitude and oxygen availability

The number of RBCs does NOT stimulate erythropoiesis, but it is the ability of RBCs to transport enough oxygen

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21
Q

What is the lifespan of RBCs? What happens in its destruction?

A

RBCs
-Survive within 120 days due to the lack of cell machinery for repair
-Are taken up by the spleen or liver & removed from circulation to be phagocytized by macrophages
-Proteins are broken down into free amino acids and reused

Hemoglobin is also destroyed by:
-Globin is broken down into free amino acids and reused
-Heme converted to bilirubin
-Iron is stored and reused

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22
Q

What are the RBC contents that are recycled?

A

Iron separates from the heme to bind to transferrin to be transported in the blood. It is later bound to ferritin to be stored until needed

Heme is converted by macrophages to biliverdin then bilirubin where it is taken to the liver bound to albumin

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23
Q

What does bilirubin do in either the liver or small intestine?

A

Liver
-Bilirubin acts as a component of bile (fat digestion) which is secreted into the digestive tract

Small Intestine
-Bilirubin is converted to urobilinogen
-Either continues into the large intestine to be converted by gut bacteria to stercobilin (feces) or be absorbed back into blood to be converted into urobilin (urine) that is excreted in the kidney

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24
Q

What are anemias and their characteristics?

A

It is when the percentage of erythrocytes is lower than normal (with low hematocrit) resulting in decreased oxygen delivery to tissue

Primary causes:
-Excessive loss of RBCs
-A decreased rate of erythropoiesis
-Deficiency in hemoglobin content

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25
Q

What are polycythemias and their characteristics?

A

It is the abnormal excess of erythrocytes (with high hematocrit) within a normal blood volume resulting in increased blood viscosity and reduced flow

The heart has to work harder to overcome the peripheral pressure to deliver oxygen to the body

26
Q

What are the anemias that are insufficient in the number of RBCs?

A

Hemorrhagic anemia is the loss of blood

Hemolytic anemia is the rupture of circulating RBCs by an external factor

Aplastic anemia is the failure of the bone marrow to produce RBCs

27
Q

What are the anemias that has a low hemoglobin count?

A

Nutritional anemia is where there is a dietary deficiency of a factor needed for erythropoiesis (ex. iron deficiency)

Pernicious anemia is the inability to absorb vitamin B12 for erythropoiesis

28
Q

What are the anemias with abnormal hemoglobin?

A

Thalassemias is where there is an absence of or a faulty global chain

Sickle-cell anemia is where there is a mutation in one of the chains of hemoglobin to change the shape of the globin under low oxygen conditions

These usually have a genetic basis

29
Q

What is primary polycythemia?

A

They are due to intrinsic factors to the RBC precursors, and erythropoiesis proceeds at an excessive, uncontrolled rate

There is an increase in blood viscosity and total peripheral resistance including polycythemia vera (production of too many RBCs)

30
Q

What is secondary polycythemia (erythrocytosis)?

A

They are due to extrinsic factors resulting in increased erythropoietin production and are resolved if the underlying condition is first resolved

3 types of secondary polycythemias:
-Compensatory Polycythemia: results from chronic hypoxia (low oxygen supply to tissues)
-Altitude-Related Polycythemia: normal adaption to a low oxygen pressure level
-Relative Polycythemia: due to decreased blood volumes and thus relative increased RBC concentrations

31
Q

What is leukopoiesis? Where is it derived from?

A

The production of leukocytes through three separate maturation processes:

Myeloid lineage requiring multi-CSF & GM-CSF
-Granulocyte production (G-CSF)
-Monocyte production (M-CSF)

Lymphoid lineage
-Resulting in producing lymphocytes (including B cells, T cells, and natural killers)

32
Q

What are leukocytes? What are the 5 types?

A

White blood cells are true cells of the blood for the purpose of immune defense

5 Types:
-Neutrophils
-Basophils
-Eosinophils
-Monocytes
-Lymphocytes

33
Q

What are the 2 types of leukocyte movement?

A

Diapedesis/Extravasation
-Localization to the site of invasion/tissue damage

Chemotaxis
-The process of attraction that directs leukocytes to the site of infection requires a chemical signal for the cell to attach to the endothelium

34
Q

What are the granulocytes and their characteristics?

A

-Multi-lobe nucleus
-Containing granules
-Functionally are phagocytes

Includes neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils

35
Q

What are the agranulocytes and their characteristics?

A

-Single nucleus
-Lack granules

Includes monocytes and lymphocytes

36
Q

What are the characteristics of neutrophils?

A

-Makes up 50-70% of the total leukocyte population
-Phagocytic cell
-1st line of defense in bacterial infection
-Characterized by a multi-lobed nucleus
-Granules take up basic (blue) and acidic (red) dyes

37
Q

What are the characteristics of eosinophils?

A

-Makes up 1-4% of the total leukocyte population
-Phagocytize antigen-antibody complex
-Attach to parasites & release factors that kill
-Characterized by a two-lobed nucleus
-Granules take up acidic (red) dyes (eosin)

38
Q

What are the characteristics of basophils?

A

-Makes up 0.5-1% of the total leukocyte population
-Synthesize and store histamine (vasodilator & inflammatory) & heparin (anticoagulant)
-Nucleus is bi-lobed; usually “U” or “S”-shaped
-Granules take up basic (blue) dye

39
Q

What are the characteristics of monocytes?

A

-Makes up 2-8% of the total leukocyte population
-Largest leukocyte
-Phagocytic cell (released as immature and differentiate into macrophages)
-Nucleus is kidney or C-shaped
-Stains light blue

40
Q

What are the characteristics of lymphocytes?

A

-Makes up 20-40% of the total leukocyte population
-The nucleus occupies most of the cell volume
-Cytoplasm is a thin rim around the nucleus

Involved in immune defense
-B-cells: produce antibodies & mark foreign substances for destruction (antibody-mediated immunity)
-T-cells: target and destroy foreign or compromised cells (cell-mediated immunity)

41
Q

What are ABO blood groups and their characteristics?

A

ABO groups carry preformed antibodies (agglutinins) in the plasma and then act against RBCs with those antigens (agglutinogens)

Blood type A: A antigen & Anti-B
Blood type B: B antigen & Anti-A
Blood type AB: AB antigen & no antibodies
Blood type O: no antigens & Anti-AB

42
Q

What is agglutination?

A

The formation of clumps of cells by specific antibodies to surface antigenic components due to ABO incompatibility

43
Q

What are Rh blood groups and their characteristics?

A

An inherited protein that can be found on the surface of the red blood cell

-Type D is the most common type
-Carriers are considered Rh+ if they have the agglutinogen (+ is they have it & - if not)
-Hemolytic disease appears if there is frequent exposure to incompatible Rh groups

44
Q

What are thrombopoiesis and its characteristics?

A

It produces platelets from the myeloid line (the committed cell is the megakaryocyte). Thrombopoietin is released by the liver and is responsible for increased megakaryocyte production

Within the platelet formation, megakaryocytes extend portions of cytoplasm between the endothelium of blood vessel walls (called pro-platelets)

45
Q

What are platelets and their characteristics?

A

They are cell fragments from megakaryocytes containing organelles & cytosolic elements

-Stored in the spleen
-Functional role in hemostasis (for 10 days only)

46
Q

What are hemostasis and its steps?

A

The stop of bleeding from a broken blood vessel (making a scab)

Steps:
-Vascular spasm
-Formation of platelet plug
-Blood coagulation (clotting)

47
Q

Describe the process of vascular spasm

A

-Cut/torn blood vessel immediately constricts and the process is initiated by endothelin
-Opposing endothelial surfaces are pressed together further sealing off blood flow and slowing it down

Other factors attract leukocytes and deactivate platelets

48
Q

Describe the process of platelet plug

A

The aggregation of platelets at the site of damage where it adhere to exposed collagen which requires von Willebrand factor (plasma protein) to serve to seal the break

Platelets activate by thromboxane A2, ADP, and calcium (clotting factors) and undergo morphological changes

49
Q

What is the result of platelet activation?

A

-Prolonged vascular spasm
-Platelet attraction
-Coagulation
-Repair of blood vessels

50
Q

What happens in the prolonged vascular spasm as a result of platelet activation?

A

Serotonin & thromboxane A2 release induces vasoconstriction & reinforces vascular spasm

51
Q

What happens in platelet attraction as a result of platelet activation?

A

ADP & thromboxane A2 cause more platelets to aggregate and activate (positive feedback loop)

ADP signals adjacent endothelium to release prostacyclin to limit platelet aggregation in undamaged tissue

52
Q

What happens in coagulation stimulation as a result of platelet activation?

A

It releases factors to promote clotting

53
Q

What happens in the repair of blood vessels as a result of platelet activation?

A

Secrete signaling molecules to surrounding tissues to initiate replication to replace damaged tissue

Actinomycin complex within platelet contracts to tighten & strengthen plug (clot retraction) and removes serum from the clot

54
Q

What is coagulation?

A

It is the formation of the blood clot by an insoluble network of fibrin that traps blood elements within to form the clot

-Requires the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin by thrombin (enzyme) at the site of infection

55
Q

What is coagulation cascade?

A

It’s a cascade of enzymatic events that lead to the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin requiring calcium and platelet factor 3 (PF3) released by the platelet plug

-It can be triggered by intrinsic or extrinsic factors
-Process will continue until the clot is formed
-Amplification of the clotting process by factors released rapidly by the enzymes

56
Q

What are the intrinsic factors of the coagulation cascade?

A

It is everything necessary for clotting presented in the blood such as:
-Initiation of damage within the vessel wall and by platelets
-A foreign substance can activate Factor XII for platelet aggregation

Longer process (3-6 minutes)

57
Q

What are the extrinsic factors of the coagulation cascade?

A

It requires factors external to blood such as:
-Initiated by damage outside of the vessel
-Tissue damage results in the release of thromboplastin which activates Factor X

Takes about 15 secs for this process

58
Q

What is the common pathway?

A

The pathway turns on the prothrombin activator to convert prothrombin into thrombin from using:
-Factor X
-Prothrombin (Factor II)
-Factor V (plasma protein)
-Calcium
-PF3

Thrombin converts fibrinogen (Factor I) into fibrin where Factor XIII crosslinks fibrin monomers into fibrin polymers creating the mesh

59
Q

What is the anticoagulant pathway?

A

It is when molecules inhibit and prevent coagulation (prevention of spontaneous blood clots and restriction of clot formation to the site of damage)

-Nitric oxide and prostacyclin are released from endothelial cells to prevent platelets activation
-Heparin is released from basophils attracted to the site of damage and inactivates thrombin
-Protein C (plasma protein) inactivates clotting factors

60
Q

What is the fibrinolytic pathway?

A

Fibrinolysis is where it breaks down the temporary scab/clot by having the thrombin activate plasminogen to convert into plasmin (clot buster)

It allows the new tissue underneath to form and prevent inappropriate clot formation

BIOL 2302 Anatomy & Physiology II (5 decks)

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