Ch 2: Current Paradigms in Psychopathology Flashcards
Paradigm
a conceptual framework or approach within which a scientist works; a set of basic assumptions
Genes
carriers of genetic information (DNA) which are passed from parent to child
Gene Expression
when proteins switch genes on and off
Polygenic
several genes, perhaps operating at different times during the course of development
Heritability
the extent to which variability in a particular behavior (or disorder) in a population can be accounted for by genetic factors
Shared Environment
things that members of a family have in common (ex. income level, child-rearing practices, parental marital status and quality)
Non-shared Environment
things believed to be distinct among members of a family (ex. relationships with friends, specific events unique to a person)
Behavior Genetics
the study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior (NOT how genes or the environment influence behavior); often estimate the heritability of a mental illness, without providing info on how the genes work
Genotype
total genetic makeup of an individual; cannot be observed outwardly; shouldn’t be viewed as static, genes can be switched on and off
Phenotype
the totality of observable behavioral characteristics (ex. level of anxiety); product of an interaction between genotype and environment
Molecular Genetics
seeks to identify particular genes and their functions; recently focused on identifying differences between people in the sequence of their genes and in the structure of their genes
Alleles
different forms of the same genes; found at the same location, or locus, on a chromosome pair
Polymorphism
a difference in DNA sequence on a gene that occurred in a population
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)
a difference between people in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a particular gene; nearly 10 million identified so far; studied in relation many disorders
Copy Number Variations (CNVs)
an abnormal copy of one or more sections of DNA within a gene; can be present in a single gene or multiple genes; additions or deletions; can be inherited or spontaneously arise
Gene-Environment Interaction
a given person’s sensitivity to an environmental event is influenced by genes
Serotonin Transporter Gener (5-HTT)
has polymorphism such that people can have long or short alleles of the protein; people who have short alleles and are maltreated more likely to develop depression; gene-environment interaction
Epigenetics
study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function
Reciprocal Gene-Environment Interaction
the ways that genes may promote certain kinds of environments; genes may predispose us to seek out certain environments that then increase our risk for developing a particular disorder
Neuroscience Paradigm
holds that mental disorders are linked to aberrant processes in the brain
Neuron
cells that make up the nervous system; made up of the cell body, several dendrites, one or more axons, and terminal buttons
Synapse
small gap between the terminal endings of the sending axon and the cell membrane of the receiving neuron
Neurotransmitters
chemicals that allow neurons to send a signal across the synapse to another neuron, causing the post-synaptic neuron to fire
Reuptake
the process of taking released neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic cell
Dopamine
neurotransmitter potentially involved in depression, mania, and schizophrenia
Serotonin
neurotransmitter potentially involved in depression, mania, and schizophrenia
Norepinephrine
neurotransmitter that communicates with the sympathetic nervous system; involved in producing states of high arousal; may be involved in anxiety disorders and stress related conditions
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
neurotransmitter that inhibits nerve impulses throughout most areas of the brain and may be involved in anxiety disorders
Second Messengers
mechanism to control the sensitivity of postsynaptic neurons; released when a cell has been firing more frequently, play a role in adjusting sensitivity of postsynaptic receptors to dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
Agonist
a drug that stimulates a particular neurotransmitter’s receptors (ex. mimics serotonin causing the same effects)
Antagonist
a drug that works on a neurotransmitter’s receptors to dampen the activity of that neurotransmitter (ex. dopamine antagonist blocks dopamine receptors, stops from firing)
Glial Cell
type of brain cell that interacts with neurons and helps control how neurons work; have been implicated in some disorders, such as dementia and schizophrenia
Corpus Callosum
band of nerve fibers that serves as a major connection between the two hemispheres that allows them to communicate
Gray Matter
the cortex, which is comprised of neurons that form the thin outer covering of the brain; vastly convoluted, with ridges and fissures
Frontal Lobe
lies in front of the central sulcus; reasoning, problem solving, working memory, emotion regulation
Parietal Lobe
lies behind the frontal lobe and above the lateral sulcus
Temporal Lobe
located below lateral sulcus; discrimination of sounds
Occipital Lobe
lies behind the temporal and parietal lobes; vision
Prefrontal Cortex
region at the very front of the cortex that helps regulate the amygdala and is important in many disorders
White Matter
located in the interior of the brain; made up of large tracts of myelinated fibers that connect cell bodies in the cortex with those in the spinal cord and other centers lower in the brain
Basal Ganglia
important set of areas located deep within each hemisphere; help regulate starting and stopping both motor and cognitive activity
Ventricles
cavities located deep within the brain; filled with cerebrospinal fluid, allows it to circulate through the brain
Thalamus
relay station for all sensory pathways except olfactory; receives nearly all impulses arriving from different sensory areas of the body before passing them on to the cortex, where they’re interpreted as conscious sensations
Brain Stem
comprised of the pons and medulla; functions as neural relay station; contains tracts that connect cerebellum with spinal cord and motor areas of cerebrum
Cerebellum
receives sensory nerves from vestibular apparatus of the ear an from muscles, tendons, and joints; information received relates to balance, posture, equilibrium, and smooth coordination of body in motion
Anterior Cingulate
area just above corpus callosum; supports visceral and physical expressions of emotion (heartbeat, respiration, trembling, sweating, change in facial expression) and expression of appetite and other primary drives (hunger, thirst, mating, defense, attack, and flight)
Septal Area
located anterior to the thalamus; supports visceral and physical expressions of emotion (heartbeat, respiration, trembling, sweating, change in facial expression) and expression of appetite and other primary drives (hunger, thirst, mating, defense, attack, and flight)
Hippocampus
stretches from septal area into the temporal lobe; supports visceral and physical expressions of emotion (heartbeat, respiration, trembling, sweating, change in facial expression) and expression of appetite and other primary drives (hunger, thirst, mating, defense, attack, and flight)
Hypothalamus
regulates metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleeping, and appetite
Amygdala
embedded at the tip of the temporal lobe; important area for attention to emotionally salient stimuli and memory of emotionally relevant events; important for disorders with emotional issues (ex. depression)
Pruning
the process of eliminating a number of synaptic connections; occurs in early adulthood; results in fewer, faster connections
HPA Axis
part of the neuroendocrine system; central to the body’s response to stress; Hypothalamus–> CRF–> Pituitary–> ACTH in blood–> Adrenal Cortex–> Cortisol; relatively slow moving system
Cortisol
the stress hormone; released by adrenal cortex; elevates blood sugar and increases metabolic rate throughout the body
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
operates quickly without our awareness; enervates endocrine glands, heart, and smooth (involuntary) muscles; agitates or calms the body
Sympathetic Nervous System
division of ANS that prepares the body for fight or flight;
Parasympathetic Nervous System
division of ANS that calms the body; however, also prepares for sexual encounter;
Reductionism
the view that whatever is being studied can and should be reduced to its most basic elements or constituents; ex. scientists try to reduce complex mental ad emotional responses to biology; this is a fallacy
Cognitive Behavioral Paradigm
has roots in learning principles and cognitive science
Behaviorism
problem behavior likely to continue if its reinforced (through getting attention, escaping from tasks, generating sensory feedback, and gaining access to desirable things or situations)
Time-Out
person is sent for a period
Behavioral Activation (BA) Therapy
example of operant conditioning against depression; helps the person engage in tasks that provide opportunity for positive reinforcement
Exposure
part of systematic desensitization; idea that anxiety will extinguish if the person can face the object or situation for long enough with no actual harm occurring; can occur in vivo or imaginarily
In Vivo
In real life situations
Cognition
a term that groups together the mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning;
Cognitive Science
focuses on how people structure their experiences, make sense of them, and relate current experiences to previous ones stored in memory
Schema
cognitive set; an organized network of already accumulated knowledge; new information may fit in or the schema is adjusted to fit the new information
Unconscious
implicit memory can influence our decisions without us being aware of it; reflects the incredible efficiency and automaticity of the brain
Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)
incorporates theory and research on cognitive processes; therapists pay attentions to private events to understand and modify over and covert disturbed behavior
Cognitive Restructuring
general term for changing a pattern of thought; ex. teaching person with depression not to think self-critically
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
based on idea that depressed mood is caused by distortions in the way people perceive life experiences; addresses biases by persuading patients to change opinion of themselves and the way they interpret life events; ex. offer counterexamples when a client says “Nothing ever goes right”
Emotions
influence how we respond to problems and challenges in our environment; organize our thoughts and actions (explicitly and implicitly); guide our behavior; family short lived states that are comprised of components including expressive, experiential, and physiological
Ideal Affect
kinds of emotional states that a person ideally wants to feel; depends based on cultural factors and drug usage
Object Relations Theory
stresses the importance of long-standing patterns in close relationships, particularly within the family, that are shaped by the way s in which people think an feel; object refers to the other person; emphasizes the way a person understands how the self is situated in relation to other people (ex. a person comes to understand herself to be worthless based on a cold and critical relationship with her mother)
Attachment Theory
the type or style of an infant’s attachment to his or her caregivers can set the stage for psychological health or problems later in life; ex. anxiously attached babies more likely to experience psychological difficulties
Interpersonal Therapy
emphasizes importance of current relationships in a person’s life an dhow problems in these relationships can contribute to psychological symptoms; unresolved grief, role transitions, role disputes, interpersonal or social deficits
Diathesis-Stress Paradigm
integrative paradigm that links genetic, neurobiological, psychological, ad environmental factors; focused on the interaction between genetics and environment; psychopathology is unlikely to result from the presence of a single factor, instead a combination
Diathesis
predisposition toward a disease
