Ch. 2 Approaches in Psychopathology Flashcards
current thinking of psychopathology
- integrative and multifaceted
- interdisciplinary focus
- informed by clinicians and researchers
- no one offers the “best” conceptualization; each informs causes and treatment
- cause and treatment is uniquely social unlike medical practices such as Cardiovascular Surgery
genetic influences
- to some degree, all behavior is heritable
- behaviorists wanted to learn about the consequences of behavior among the environments
- genes are not in isolation from environment
- environments shape how genes are expressed AND
- genes shape the environment
- relationship between genes and environment is bidirectional
genes
piece of the whole DNA within chromosome
gene expression
whether or not we physically express info on genes
polygenic
multiple genes are involved and contribute
heritability
extent to which trait is transmitted genetically
epigenetics
everything but genetic code that influence gene expression
- on and off switch
ex. stress response
shared environment
income, child-rearing practices, marital status, and quality
nonshared environment
unique to each family member
behavioral genetics
study of the degree to which genes and environments influence behavior
- how much do genes and environments influence
- genotype vs. phenotype
genotype
having a gene for a particular trait or disorder
ex. having gene for breast cancer, but not getting it based on an environmental factor
phenotype
what is seen; what manifests
molecular genetics
identifies functions of genes
- identifies differences in sequence and structures of genes between people
- alleles
- polymorphism
alleles
different form of the same gene
polymorphism
a single difference in DNA on a gene occurring in a particular population
single nucleotide polymorphisms
difference between people in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a particular gene
- SNPs
copy number variations
abnormal copy of one or more sections of DNA within the gene
- differences in gene structure
- additions or deletions
genome-wide association studies
- key method to examine SNPs and CNVs
- SNPs are tools
- can identify variations within a population of a single gene sequence
- isolate difference between those with and without disorder
- psychological disorders involve many genes
- Brainstorm Consortium international study
gene-environment interaction
sensitivity to environmental event is influenced by genes
ex. stress; how long and short your fuse is and how long and short a burn is coming back to normal level
- epigenetics
epigenetics
studies how environments can alter genetic expression or function
- animal studies show that epigenetic effects transmit generationally
ex. Rwanda Genocides → stress hormone crosses into utero, DNA methylation causes dysregulated stress response
- look Quasi-experimentally
challenges of genetic influences
- genes and environments are reciprocally related
the same genes can react differently in the same environment - this relationships is incredibly complex
what does consciousness allow us to do? Remember and approach our goals while being able to make adjustments to environmental changes - genetic vulnerability increases risk broadly for multiple disorders
diagnostic model is based on symptoms but medicine uses an etiology approach (looks at cause)
neuroscience influences
- neurons and neurotransmitters
- structure-function relationships
- autonomic nervous system
- neuroendocrine system
- immune system
neuron
- a single nerve cell
- the unit of neural communication
- soma, dendrite, axon, terminal button
soma
cell body that contains nucleus
dendrite
receivers of neuron messages
axon
long, processes coming out of soma
-mylin aids speeding the process of messages up
terminal button
place where receiving neuron becomes sending neurons
synapse
small gap between two neurons where the nerve signal passes electrically or chemically from the axon of the first to the dendrites, cell body, or axon of the second
golgi apparatus
packages neurotransmitters into vesicles and releases them that attach to begin at the soma
neurontransmitters
chemical substances important in transferring a nerve impulse from one neuron to another; messages
- merge with presynaptic membrane; postsynaptic membrane picks them up
receptor sites
excitatory → tell the next neuron to fire
inhibitory → tell the next neuron to stop firing
reuptake
- excess of neurotransmitters are sucked back up to save for next transmission
- waste is removed
types of neurotransmitters
- serotonin and dopamine
- norepinephrine
- gamma-aminobutyric (GABA)
types of neurotransmitters
- serotonin and dopamine
- norepinephrine
- gamma-aminobutyric (GABA)
serotonin and dopamine
depression, mania, schizophrenia
norepinephrine
- sympathetic nervous system (high arousal)
- anxiety and stress-related conditions
gamma-aminobutyric (GABA)
- inhibitory
- anxiety
neurotransmitters and psychopathology
- excessive or inadequate levels
- reverse inference
- synthesis problems at metabolic level
- insufficient reuptake
- faulty receptors
brain structure
- white matter
- grey matter
- ventricles
white matter
- connective tissue
- fibers that connect cortical and subcortical areas
- myelinated axons
- subcortical
- autonomic functions → metabolism and hormone regulation, emotional regulation, drug addiction
grey matter
- cortical surface → cell bodies
- frontal , parietal, occipital, temporal lobes
- messages being sent
- perception, sensation, thinking
subcortical brain structures
- hippocampus
- hypothalamus
- amygdala
- anterior cingulate
- critical to emotional autonomic well-being
hippocampus
putting memories in sequence; memory
hypothalamus
the structure that regulates many visceral processes, including metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleeping, and appetite.
amygdala
involved in attention to emotionally salient stimuli and memory of emotionally relevant events
anterior cingulate
affects regulation and decision making
ventricles
filled with cerebrospinal fluid
brain development
first trimester of pregnancy – early adulthood
- pruning
eliminate excess so others can become stronger and faster
some synaptic connections are eliminated
- those that are left are faster and more efficient
- late adolescence research has shown synaptic pruning contributes to schizophrenia
current brain research
- connectivity > functions of isolated regions
- structural: white matter
- functional: bold (blood oxygen level) signals measured with fMRI
- effective: direction and timing of activity
- brain networks across different regions and their relationships to psychopathology
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- innervates endocrine glands (hormones), the heart, and smooth muscles
- very quick and flexible responding to the environment without conscious awareness
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
sympathetic
fight or flight
- cortisol is related to heart disease; saturated bodies, corrosive
- body reacts the same to all stressful events
parasympathetic
calm down
ANS & anxiety disorders
- heavily implicated
- more finely attuned to environment; more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as threatening
- stress affects nervous system which is connected to immune system
neuroendocrine system
- the HPA axis
- important to both mental and physical health
- cortisol: 20-40 minutes to peak, 1 hour to recover
- chronic stress → serious problem
HPA axis
- hypothalamus
- pituitary gland
- amygdala
immune system
- array of cells and proteins that activate in response to infection and stress
- cytokines (a protein) initiate responses to infection
- fatigue, inflammation, activation of HPA axis
- linked to depression and schizophrenia
neuroscience approaches to treatment
- psychiatric drugs
- non-biological interventions influence brain functioning
psychotherapy
neurofeedback, biofeedback
evaluation of neuroscience approaches
- significant process in recent decades
- reductionism is a major challenge
focusing in at specific areas and functions, need to know all of the pieces
cognitive behavioral approaches
- learning principles and cognitive science
- to change behavior, modify consequences
ex. a child is afraid of the dark, most parents soothe the child → why is the child crying? Think about elements of environment that encourage or discourage crying - are they actually anxious or displaying behavior to receive the reinforcement they want?
cognitive science
cognition
- perceiving, recognizing, judging, reasoning
- computer and brains might be similar
schema
- organized network of knowledge (i.e., working model)
- assimilation and accommodation
i’ll forget about it, changing view of having straight As and what it means
- role of attention in psychopathology
how we live our lives
role of the unconscious
- implicit memory
- latent learning
- implicit memory deficits with social anxiety and depression
cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)
- focuses on adjusting thoughts, perceptions, judgments, self-statements, and unconscious assumptions
- cognitive restructuring
changing patterns of thought
leads to changing feelings, behaviors, and symptoms
beck’s cognitive therapy
- developed for depression to address distorted perceptions
- collaborative (patient ←→ therapist)
- “third Wave” treatments focus on spirituality, values, emotion, and acceptance
dialectical behavior therapy, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy
evaluation of cognitive behavior influences
- limited explanatory value
- thoughts thought to cause features of disorder
- what sustains negative schemas?
socioemotional influences
- expressive, behavioral, physiological
- sociocultural
- interpersonal
emotions
- organize thoughts and actions, influence responses, guide behavior
- 85% disorders include disturbance in emotional processing
-short-lived - moods are emotional experiences that endure
components of emotion response
- expressive
- experiential
- psychological
- most disorders include disturbances in one or more areas
expressive
behavioral and facial expressions
experiential
subjective feelings and self-report
psychological
changes in the body accompanying emotion
ideal affect
what we want to feel
- culturally dependent:
western:☺
east asian: calm
- linked to drug use:
US → cocaine and amphetamine addiction
china → heroin addiction
sociocultural factors & psychopathology
- gender, race, culture, ethnicity, SES
- environmental factors can trigger, exacerbate, or maintain symptoms that make up disorders
- culture influences symptom expression, availability of treatment, and the willingness to seek treatment
interpersonal factors
relationship quality exerts enormous influence
- closeness, support, absence of hostility
- social support influences the course of psychopathology
- role of trauma, serious life events, and stress
interpersonal therapy (IBT)
focus on impact of current relationships on psychopathology
- unresolved grief
- role transitions
- role disputes
- social deficits
couples and family therapy focus on relationship dynamics
evaluation of socio emotional factors
- integrative and multifaceted
genetic, neurobiological, psychological, and environmental - challenge is to determine causal relationships among contributing factors
unimaginably complex
