Ch. 14 - Stress and Health

Question 1

What is the difference between stressors and stress?

Answer 1

Stressors: specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person’s well-being

Stress: the physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors

Question 2

What is health psychology?

Answer 2

the subfield of psychology concerned with how psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health

Question 3

What are chronic stressors?

Answer 3

Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly (strained relationships, discrimination, overwork, poverty, etc.)

Question 4

What are the two general sources of chronic stressors?

Answer 4

• Social relationships

- Environments

Question 5

What is environmental psychology?

Answer 5

The scientific study of environmental effects on behaviour and health

Question 6

Why do people from disadvantaged groups experience higher rates of health problems?

Answer 6

• Chronic stress
• More likely to resort to maladaptive coping mechanisms
• Discrimination in health care

Question 7

How can perceived control impact our experience of stress?

Answer 7

Stressors challenge you to do something, so the most stressful events are ones where there is nothing you can do

Expecting you will have control over what happens to you is associated with effectiveness in dealing with stress

Question 8

What is the fight-or-flight response, and what process does it trigger?

Answer 8

an emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action; causes a cascading response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis

Question 9

Describe the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis

Answer 9

1. The hypothalamus activates in response to a threat
2. The activation of the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland
3. The pituitary gland releases the hormone ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
4. ACTH travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands above the kidneys
5. The adrenal glands release hormones, including catecholamines (epinephrine/norepinephrine) and cortisol
6. The catecholamines increase sympathetic nervous system activation and decrease parasympathetic activation
7. Cortisol increases the concentration of glucose in the blood

Question 10

What is general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?

Answer 10

a three-stage physiological stress response to prolonged/repeated stress that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered

• A nonspecific response: the response does not vary, no matter what the source of the repeated stress

Question 11

What are the 3 stages of general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?

Answer 11

1. Alarm phase (the body rapidly mobilizes its resources to respond to the threat; the body calls on its stored fat and muscle for energy; equivalent to fight-or-flight)
2. Resistance phase (the body adapts to its high state of arousal as it tries to cope with the stressor; the body continues to draw on the resources of fat and muscle and also shuts down unnecessary processes (digestion, growth, sex drive, menstruation, production of testosterone and sperm, etc.)
3. Exhaustion phase (the body’s resistance collapses, as many of the resistance-phase defenses cause gradual damage as they operate; costs for the body include susceptibility to infection, tumour growth, aging, irreversible organ damage, and death)

Question 12

What are telomeres and what do they have to do with aging?

Answer 12

the caps at the ends of chromosomes that prevent the chromosomes from sticking to each other (think of an aglet on a shoe lace - holds it together)
• Each time a cell divides, as they do constantly and repeatedly throughout our lives, the telomeres become slightly shorter
• If a telomere becomes too short, the cell can no longer divide; this can lead to the development of tumors and a range of diseases

Question 13

What is telomerase?

Answer 13

an enzyme that rebuilds telomeres

• Ultimately, telomerase cannot keep up telomere repair fast enough to stop cell aging and death altogether

Question 14

What is different about the telomeres/telomerase activity of people exposed to chronic stress?

Answer 14

Shorter telomere length + lower telomerase activity, as cortisol can reduce the activity of telomerase

Question 15

What is psychoneuroimmunology?

Answer 15

the study of how the immune system responds to psychological variables, such as the presence of stressors

• Stressors cause hormones called glucocorticoids (ex. cortisol) to flood the brain, wearing down the immune system and making it less effective

Question 16

How is the heart and circulatory system sensitive to stress?

Answer 16

• Chronic stress creates changes in the body that increase later vulnerability to coronary heart disease and heart attack
• Chronic stress is a major contributor to atherosclerosis; long-term increased blood pressure gradually damages blood vessels, then the damaged vessels accumulate plaque

Question 17

What is a type A behaviour pattern and how does it relate to stress?

Answer 17

a tendency towards easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings

Associated with more tension, which increases the incidence of heart attacks

Question 18

What is the difference between a primary appraisal and a secondary appraisal?

Answer 18

Primary appraisal: the interpretations of a stimulus as being stressful or not

Secondary appraisal: determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not; whether or not you have control over an event
• A stressor is perceived as a threat if you believe you are not able to overcome it; increase vascular reactivity (constriction of blood vessels, high blood pressure)
• A stressor is perceived as a challenge if you are confident you can control it; increases heart rate without causing vascular reactivity

Question 19

What is burnout? What are some symptoms and causes?

Answer 19

a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion resulting from long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation

• Symptoms include overwhelming exhaustion, deep cynicism, detachment, a sense of ineffectiveness/lack of accomplishment
• Causes may include using your job to give meaning to your life (can be avoided by investing time in family, hobbies, etc.), having an emotionally stressful job (requires active effort to counteract stress)

Question 20

What are the 3 ways of changing the way you think about a stressor?

Answer 20

1. Repressive coping (repression)
2. Rational coping (rationalization)
3. Reframing

Question 21

What is repressive coping (repression)?

Answer 21

avoiding feelings, thoughts, or situations that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint

Question 22

What is rational coping (rationalization), and what are its 3 steps?

Answer 22

facing the stressor and working to overcome it; the opposite of repressive coping; requires approaching a stressor in order to diminish it longer-term negative impact; a 3-step process involving…

1. Acceptance: coming to realize that the stressor exists and cannot be wished away
2. Exposure: attending to the stressor, thinking about it, and even seeking it out
3. Understanding: working to find the meaning of the stressor in your life

Question 23

What is reframing?

Answer 23

finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat

Question 24

What is stress-inoculation training (SIT)?

Answer 24

a reframing technique that helps people cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situations

Question 25

How does meditation mitigate the effects of stress?

Answer 25

• Shown to improve/increase attention, the connectivity between parts of the brain involved in conflict monitoring and cognitive/emotional control, and myelination; can also lead to lengthening of telomeres
• Those who meditate may be better able to regulate their thoughts/emotions, manage interpersonal relations, anxiety, and a range of other activities that require conscious effort

Question 26

What is relaxation therapy, and what physiological response does it draw on?

Answer 26

a technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body

• Draws on a relaxation response: a condition of reduced muscles tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure

Question 27

What is biofeedback?

Answer 27

the use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and then to possibly gain control over that function

Question 28

What activity is commonly associated with improved mental health? Why?

Answer 28

Aerobic exercise
• Potentially results in an increase in neurotransmitters like serotonin as well as endorphins
• Engaging in aerobic exercise helps you to recover more quickly from future stressors

Question 29

What are some benefits of social support in stress management?

Answer 29

• Good ongoing social relationships can be as healthy as exercising and not smoking
• An intimate partner can also be a partner in healthy eating, exercise, following medical orders, etc.
• Talking about problems with friends/family can offer many of the benefits of professional psychotherapy
• Sharing tasks and helping each other can reduce the amount of work and worry in each other’s lives

Question 30

It is suggested that the fight-or-flight response is a largely male reaction; what is the proposed female equivalent?

Answer 30

Tend-and-befriend: taking care of people and bringing them together in times of stress, due in part to the release of oxytocin (in the presence of estrogen, oxytocin triggers social responses like a tendency to seek out social contacts, nurture others, and create/maintain cooperative groups)

• This may help explain why women, on average, are healthier and tend to live longer than men

Question 31

What health benefits are linked with religiosity and spirituality?

Answer 31

lower rates of heart disease, decreases in chronic pain, and improved psychological health due to a stronger/more extensive social network, dietary restrictions, abstinence from drugs/alcohol, a more hopeful/optimistic outlook, etc.

Question 32

What are the benefits of humour in response to stress?

Answer 32

• Reduced sensitivity to pain and distress

* Reduced time needed to calm down after a stressful event

Question 33

What is the sickness response? What is the purpose of its effects?

Answer 33

a coordinated, adaptive set of reactions to illness organized by the brain, initiated by cytokines which activate the vagus nerve; can also be initiated by stress

Effects:
• Keeps one at home (prevents spreading sickness to others)
• Reduces activity (conserves energy for fighting illness)
• Appetite loss (energy spent on digestion is conserved)

Question 34

What is the placebo effect?

Answer 34

a clinically significant psychological or physiological response to a therapeutically inert substance or procedure
• Triggers the release of endorphins, which act as painkillers produced by the brain
• Lowers the activation of specific brain areas associated with pain (thalamus, anterior cingulate cortex, insula)

Question 35

What is psychosomatic illness?

Answer 35

an interaction between mind and body that can produce illness

Question 36

What do somatic symptom disorders involve, and how has our understanding of them shifted?

Answer 36

a person with at least one bodily symptom displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns about their symptoms, and devotes excessive time and energy to their symptoms or health concerns

• Used to be called somatoform disorders (ex. hypochondriasis); these focused on the idea that unexplained medical symptoms were generated by the mind
• The focus on psychosomatic illness, however, has shifted to excessive psychological concerns about explainable medical symptoms

Question 37

Describe the “sick role”

Answer 37

a socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness

• The sick person is absolved of responsibility for many everyday obligations, and may even get away with socially unacceptable behaviour (ex. being rude, demanding, lazy, etc.)
• Obligations of the sick person include not appearing to enjoy the illness, pursuing treatment, etc.

Question 38

What is malingering?

Answer 38

feigning medical or psychological symptoms to achieve something a person wants

Question 39

What are the two kinds of psychological factors that influence personal health?

Answer 39

1. Health-relevant personality traits (Type A, etc.; beyond one’s personal control)
2. Health behaviour (generally within one’s control)

Question 40

How does optimism contribute to better health outcomes?

Answer 40

• Seems to aid in the maintenance of psychological health in the face of physical health problems (avoiding negative emotions, sticking to medical regimens, keeping up relationships with others, etc.)
• Associated with engaging in healthier behaviours (better diet, exercise, etc.)

Question 41

What is hardiness, and what does it consist of?

Answer 41

Hardiness = a set of traits that prevent a person from getting as many illnesses in the face of stress

Traits of hardiness:

• Commitment (ability to be invovled in life’s tasks rather than just dabbling)
• Belief in control (expecting one’s own actions to have a causal influence over their life/environment)
• Willingness to accept challenge

Question 42

What is self-regulation?

Answer 42

the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards

• Often involves putting off immediate gratification for longer-term gains
• Theorized to be a type of strength that can be fatigued; to control our behaviour successfully we need to choose our battles (those which are most impactful on our health)

Question 43

What is the illusion of unique invulnerability?

Answer 43

a systematic bias towards believing that one is less likely to fall victim to a problem than others are (ex. engaging in unprotected sex despite knowing about the risks)

Question 44

What are the 3 forms of stress?

Answer 44

1. Acute: short-term stress that comes from obvious triggers (running late, car accident, etc.); most common form
2. Episodic: acute stress which happens frequently (ex. consistently running late to work)
3. Chronic: results from ongoing issues like poverty, relationship issues, etc.; can lead to physical and mental health problems

Question 45

What are the 2 most common psychometric measures for stress?

Answer 45

The Life Stressor Checklist by Wolfe et al., 1996

The Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory

Question 46

What is eustress?

Answer 46

Stress that is:

• Short term
• Energizing and motivating
• Percieved as something within one’s coping ability
• Exciting
• A source of increased focus/performance

Question 47

Which 3 hormone secreting glands are involved in the HPA-Axis System?

Answer 47

1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary gland
3. Adrenal glands

Question 48

What are the 4 benefits/consequences of cortisol in the stress response?

Answer 48

1. Protein catabolism: breaking down to protein
2. Gluconeogenesis: creation of new glucose
3. Lipolysis: helping to break down fat
4. Immunosuppression: redirecting energy away from the immune system

Question 49

What are the 6 domains of burnout?

Answer 49

1. Social (callousness, relationship issues, alienation)
2. Physical (slow recovery, poor sleep, increased pain)
3. Emotional (cynicism, emotional exhaustion)
4. Environmental (reduced ability to deal with high-stress settings)
5. Mental (poor focus, heightened worry)
6. Existential (reduced sense of personal accomplishment, feeling that nothing matters)

Question 50

What are the two traits that aid in the maintenance of psychological health in the face of stress?

Answer 50

1. Optimism

2. Hardiness