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3703 > Central Nervous System (CNS) > Flashcards

Central Nervous System (CNS) Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two divisions of the nervous system?

A

Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

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2
Q

What factor gives humans more intelligence than animals?

A

The human brain has a high ratio of brain to body

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3
Q

What is the frontal lobe responsible for?

A

Human’s consciousness, cognitive abilities such as learning and memory

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4
Q

What impact does the high degree of gyrification (folding) of the cerebral cortex have?

A

Provides a higher surface area and greater cognitive functionality that can fit into a smaller cranium

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5
Q

What is the function of the cerebral cortex?

A

Sends messages to move skeletal muscles. Also performs activities like thinking, learning and remembering

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6
Q

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

A

Helps coordinate slow, sustained movements and supresses useless patterns of movement

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7
Q

What is the role of the thalamus?

A

Interprets sensory messages such as pain, temperature and pressure

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8
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

A

Directs hormone secretions of the pituitary and controls homeostatic functions

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9
Q

What are the homeostatic functions of the hypothalamus?

A

Temperature, heartbeat and respiration

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10
Q

What is the role of the cerebellum?

A

Coordinates subconscious movements

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11
Q

Function of the brain stem

A

Origin of many cranial nerves
Regulates heartbeat and breathing
Transmits impulses between brain and spinal cord

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12
Q

What features does the cerebrum consist of?

A

Cerebral cortex and white matter (myelinated axons) and grey matter (neurons)

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13
Q

What are the deep folds (gyri) of the cortex called?

A

Fissures

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14
Q

What are the shallow folds of the cortex called?

A

Sulci

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15
Q

What is the main neuron that is found in the cortex?

A

Pyramidal neuron

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16
Q

Which neurotransmitter is released by pyramidal neurons?

A

Glutamate which causes excitation

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17
Q

Which neurotransmitter is released by interneurons?

A

GABA to cause inhibition

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18
Q

Which neurons are found in the cortex?

A

Interneurons and pyramidal

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19
Q

Where are basal nuclei found?

A

Cortex

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20
Q

What is the function of the 3 basal nuclei?

A

Initiate and terminate movement
Supress unwanted movement
Regulate muscle tone

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21
Q

Which diseases do basal nuclei have an effect on?

A

Parkinson’s and Huntington’s

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22
Q

What is the limbic system composed of

A

Parts of the cerebral cortex, diencephalon and midbrain

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23
Q

What are the main regions of the limbic system

A

Amygdala, the hippocampus, cingulate gyrus and fornix

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24
Q

Limbic system- Amygdala

A

Emotional processes

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25
Q

Limbic system- the hippocampus

A

Consolidation of new memories

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26
Q

Limbic system- cingulate gyrus

A

Linking motivational outcomes to behaviour

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27
Q

Limbic system- fornix

A

Memory

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28
Q

Diseases of the cortex

A

Alzheimer’s/Dementia
Epilepsy
Schizophrenia
Stroke

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29
Q

The structures of the thalamic region (Diencephalon)

A

Epithalamus, thalamus and hypothalamus

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29
Q

The structures of the thalamic region (Diencephalon)

A

Epithalamus, thalamus and hypothalamus

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30
Q

Function of the thalamus

A

Relay station for sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex (except smell)

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31
Q

Function of the hypothalamus

A

Uses neurochemicals and hormones to maintain homeostasis

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32
Q

Fight or flight- step 1

A

Amygdala senses a threat and signals to the hypothalamus

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33
Q

Fight or flight- step 2

A

Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system to release adrenaline

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34
Q

Fight or flight- step 3

A

Adrenaline increases heart rate, alertness and oxygen

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35
Q

The brain stem is made up of:

A

The midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata

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36
Q

The functional centres regulated by the medulla

A

Cardiovascular
Respiratory rhythmicity
Vomiting, coughing and sneezing

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37
Q

How does the medulla regulate body functions

A

With nuclei associated with the 5 cranial nerves

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38
Q

Where are the largest motor tracts in the body

A

The medulla oblongata, forming the pyramids

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39
Q

What is the decussation of pyramids

A

The left hemisphere of the brain controls muscles on the right and vice versa

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40
Q

What causes the decussation of pyramids

A

Axons from the left pyramid cross over to the right and vice versa

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41
Q

Role of the pons

A

Helps to control breathing

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42
Q

Role of the pontine (pons) respiratory group neurons

A

Act as an off-on switch where they increase and decrease breathing

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43
Q

The hormone released by Substantia nigra neurons (MIDBRAIN) and its role

A

Release dopamine and help control subconscious muscle activity

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44
Q

Loss of substantia nigra

A

Leads to Parkinson disease

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45
Q

The nuclei in the midbrain

A

Substantia nigra
Raphe nuclei
Locus coeruleus
Pedunculopontine nucleus

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45
Q

Hormones released by the Raphe nuclei

A

Serotonin

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46
Q

Hormones released by Locus coeruleus

A

Noradrenaline

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47
Q

Hormones released by Pedunculopontine nucleus

A

Acetylcholine

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48
Q

What is the reticular formation in the brain stem

A

Netlike arrangement of neuronal cell bodies and myelinated axons

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49
Q

The function of the reticular activating system (RAS)

A

Maintains consciousness (state of being awake) and prevents sensory overload

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50
Q

The cerebellum

A

Contains purkinje neurons that allow it to process a lot of information
Second largest part of the brain

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51
Q

Important role of the cerebellum

A

Unconscious motor coordination

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52
Q

Diseases associated with the cerebellum

A

Autism and ataxia

53
Q

Definition of neuroscience

A

The study of how the nervous system develops, its structure and what it does

54
Q

Function of glial cells

A

Helps to regulate neurons, insulates, supports, nourishes

55
Q

Function of neurons

A

Sense environmental changes
Process information
Communicate changes to other neurons
Command body response

56
Q

Reticular theory

A

Until 1888, Camillo Golgi siad the nervous system was a single continuous network

57
Q

The neuron doctrine

A

1888- Santiago Cajal said the brain is made up of a single discontinuous cells (neurons)

58
Q

Neuron charges

A

Negative intracellular charge and positive extracellular generates action potentials

58
Q

Neuron charges

A

Negative intracellular charge and positive extracellular generates action potentials

59
Q

Role of axons

A

Relaying information from one neuron to the next

60
Q

Lack of synaptic transmission

A

Leads to death of neurons and mental disorders

61
Q

Role of dendrites

A

Receive and process information sent from axons

62
Q

Spiny/rough dendrites

A

More branched so they receive more information

63
Q

How are astrocytes identified

A

By using glial fibrillary acidic protein as a marker (GFAP)

64
Q

How does phenothiazine have antipsychotic activity

A

R2 hydrophilic side chain

65
Q

3 subtypes of R2 groups of phenothiazine

A

Aliphatic chain, piperidinyl group and piperazinyl chain (more potent)

66
Q

Mode of action of phenothiazines (antipsychotic)

A

Block dopaminergic receptors D2 in a stereoselective manner

67
Q

How do neurons communicate

A

Electrical and chemical signals that inhibit or excite neuronal activity

68
Q

Link between astrocytes and the blood brain barrier

A

Astrocytes processes surround the tight junctions and maintain and regulate the BBB

69
Q

What is the main way that drugs cross the BBB

A

Specific transporter proteins and specific carrier transcytosis

70
Q

What is excitotoxicity

A

High levels of glutamate causes overactivity of neurons which is toxic and destroys neurons

71
Q

Most common cause of excitotoxicity

A

Stroke- lack of oxygen causes glutamate transporter to fail and glutamate accumulates

72
Q

How do astrocytes prevent epilepsy

A

They take up potassium and stop it from building up

73
Q

What is the myelin sheath in the CNS made of

A

Oligodendrocyte layers that are fatty and good for insulation

74
Q

Role of the myelin sheath

A

Increases the speed of electrical impulses along the axon

75
Q

What is the myelin sheath in the PNS made of

A

Schwann cells that only myelinate one axon each

76
Q

Main cause of demyelination

A

Multiple sclerosis disease

77
Q

What is demyelination

A

loss of myelination which causes axonal conduction block and degeneration

78
Q

Role of microglia

A

Detect damage and respond rapidly
Become phagocytic
Activate during injury, inflammation, immune insults

79
Q

Classification of neurotransmitters

A
  1. Synthesised and stored in presynaptic neuron
    2.Released by presynaptic axon terminal
    3.Produce response in postsynaptic cell
80
Q

What is an agonist

A

Agents that bind to and activate receptors

81
Q

What is an inverse agonist

A

Agents that bind to the same receptor as an agonist but produce the opposite response to the agonist

82
Q

What is an antagonist

A

Agents that block receptors and stop agonists/inverse agonists from binding

83
Q

Two major classes of receptors

A

Ionotropic (fast neurotransmission) and metabotropic (slow neurotransmission)

84
Q

How do ionotropic receptors work

A

They form pores and channels that allow ions in and out of the cell when activated

85
Q

How do metabotropic receptors work

A

G-protein coupled receptors that carries out biochemical cascades that increase or decrease proteins or calcium levels

86
Q

Main excitatory CNS neurotransmitter

A

Glutamate- fast acting neurotransmitter

87
Q

4 main glutamate receptors

A

NMDA, AMPA, Kainate and mGluR1-8

88
Q

Most important drug targets for the glutamate system

A

NMDA receptors

89
Q

Glutamate in brain function

A

Important for learning and memory because it mediates long term potentiation (LTP)

90
Q

What is long term potentiation (LTP)

A

Strengthening of synapses which allows learning and memory to occur

91
Q

Link between glutamate and dementia ?

A

Enhances cognition so research is ongoing

92
Q

Main inhibitory CNS neurotransmitter

A

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric acid), less chance of action potentials

93
Q

Dysregulation of glutamate activity leads to

A

Excessive excitability of neurons which causes epilepsy

94
Q

NMDA impairment is linked to

A

Schizophrenia

95
Q

GABA in pathogenesis of anxiety

A

Benzodiazepines relieve anxiety by producing GABAa transmission

96
Q

GABA in muscle tone and epilepsy

A

GABAb agonists inhibit release of excitatory transmitters

97
Q

Drugs that are used in epilepsy that work on GABA

A

Benzodiazepines treat status epilepticus and baclofen treats spasticity

98
Q

What is status epilepticus

A

A seizure that lasts longer than 5 minutes or having multiple seizures without recovery in between

99
Q

GABA in movement control

A

A major transmitter in basal ganglia so it is associated with movement disorders

100
Q

Where are monoamine neurotransmitters derived from

A

Aromatic amino acids like tryptophan (serotonin) and tyrosine (noradrenaline)

101
Q

How do monoamines and acetylcholine differ from other transmitters

A

Only expressed by a group of neurons in specific brain regions, they are called nucleus

102
Q

What makes a group of neurons, a nucleus

A

Express a common chemical eg dopaminergic nuclei

103
Q

Major Dopamine (DA) nuclei

A

Substantia nigra
Ventral tegmental area
Hypothalamus

104
Q

Dopamine receptors (metabotropic)

A

D1, 2, 3 ,4, 5

105
Q

What type of receptors are dopamine receptors

A

Metabotropic, they excite or inhibit

106
Q

How does Reserpine work at NA and DA synapses

A

Inhibits VMAT and depletes dopamine stores

107
Q

How does AMPT work at NA and DA synapses

A

Inhibits tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine and noradrenaline synthesis

108
Q

How does cocaine work at DA synapses

A

Inhibits the dopamine transporter

109
Q

How does amphetamine work at DA synapses

A

Increases dopamine release via the transporter

110
Q

How does pramipexole work at DA synapses

A

Partially selective D3 agonist

111
Q

How does tropolone work at DA and NA synapses

A

Inhibits COMT

112
Q

How does selegiline work at DA synapses

A

Inhibits MAOb

113
Q

How do most antipsychotics work at DA synapses

A

Block D2 receptors but aripiprazole is a partial agonist

113
Q

How do most antipsychotics work at DA synapses

A

Block D2 receptors but aripiprazole is a partial agonist

114
Q

How does bromocriptine work at DA synapses

A

D2 agonist

115
Q

How is DA and NA recycled

A

By MOA or COMT enzymes

116
Q

Major noradrenergic nuclei

A

Locus coeruleus

117
Q

Noradrenergic receptors (metabotropic)

A

Alpha 1 and 2 and Beta 1, 2, 3

118
Q

Role of NA in brain function

A

Arousal (how awake you are), memory & cognition and stress response

119
Q

How do SNRI and NRIs work at NA synapses

A

Antidepressants that inhibit noradrenaline transporter

120
Q

How do SNRI and NRIs work at NA synapses

A

Antidepressants that inhibit noradrenaline transporter

121
Q

How do MOA inhibitors work at NA synapses

A

Antidepressants that inhibit MAOb

122
Q

How does prazosin work at NA synapses

A

a1 antagonist

123
Q

How does yohimbine work at NA synapses

A

a2 antagonist

124
Q

How does clonidine work at NA synapses

A

a2 agonist

125
Q

How does propranolol work at NA synapses

A

B antagonist

126
Q

Main serotonin (5 hydroxytryptamine- 5HT) nuclei

A

Collection of raphe nuclei in midbrain and pons

127
Q

Serotonin (5HT) receptors

A

7 subclasses, all metabotropic except 5HT3

128
Q

Functional role of serotonin

A

Sleep, pain, emotion

129
Q

Major ACh nuclei

A

Nucleus basal
Medial septal nucleus and diagonal band
Pedunculopontine nucleus

130
Q

ACh receptors

A

Nicotinic (ionotropic) - 17 subtypes
Muscarinic (metabotropic) 5 subtypes (M1-5)

3703 (13 decks)

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