Cells & Tissues Flashcards
Define Physiology
How parts of the body work
Define Reproduction
formation of new cells or production of new individual
Define Differentation
Define Pathology
Study of abnormalities from normal function
Define growth
increase in size or increase in number
Define Metabolism
Sum of all chemical processes in the body
Define Movement
movement of the whole organism or of individual organs, cells and structures inside of cells
Define Anatomy
Study of structures that form the body
Define Responsiveness
Ability to respond to changes in the environment
Name 4 characteristics of death
Loss of heartbeat
Absence of breathing
Loss of brain function
No vital force/life force/ Qi
Define Homeostasis
Homeostasis is a fundamental principle of physiology
List the 4 physiological variables that must be maintained within homeostatic parameters
Blood pressure
Water and electrolyte levels
Glucose levels
Temperature 36.5 -37.5
PH (acidity or alkalinity) of body fluids.
Blood and tissue CO2 and O2 levels
Flow of life force
Regarding body fluids, state the name of the fluid found:
a. Inside the cell
b. Outside the cell
c. between cells
a. Intracellular
b. extracellular fluid
c. Interstitial fluid
Homeostasis is controlled by four control systems. Name each and what their function is.
Disruptors - change the homeostatic parameter (e.g. if we have a high temp will start sweating or low blood sugar
Detectors - Receptors that detect the disruption (often nerves)
(e.g the brain will detect the temperature is high and make us sweat or for low blood sugar will make you hungry)
Control Centre: Determines the limits within which parameters should be maintained. Evaluates the input and generates the output.
Effectors: Structures that receive the output.
What is lack of Oxygen called
Hypoxia
What is EPO
Hormone that makes bone marrow produce more red blood cells.
What is the purpose of:
a. positive feedback.
b. negative feedback
a. strengthens (amplifies) a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions
e.g childbirth, milk production, blood clotting enzyme production
b. The output reverses the input e.g body temp, glucose levels blood pressure.
Effector response decreases the effect of the original stimulus maintaining or restoring homeostasis.
List 2 examples of positive feedback
Childbirth, milk production, blood clotting, enzyme reactions and immunity
List 2 examples of negative feedback
high/low temp, high/low glucose levels, high/low blood pressure
Name 4 body cavities
Cranial
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
What are the terms given to the following statements:
a. groups of cells that work together to perform a function
b. related organs that have a common function
c. smallest living unit in the body
d. groups of tissues working together to preform a specific function
e. Vital Force
a. tissues
b. Systems
c. cell
d. organs
e. the energy that creates life
Define Life Force/Vital Life Force/Qi
The energy that creates life
Briefly explain the cell theory
All known living things are made up of cells and vital force
When was the cell theory proposed and what were the 5 facts
Proposed in 1839
All living things are made up of cells and vital force
the cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things
All cells come from preexisting cells by division.
Cells contain hereditary information in the form of DNA
All energy flow of life (metabolism and life force) occurs in cells
Describe the relationship between cell memory and vital life force/life force
Cell memory describes the ability of cells to remember experiences which influence the vital life force in our cells and body. Traumatic experiences and negative beliefs can be stored as a negative charge of energy in cells.
Vital force is free flowing throughout the body but can become blocked creating the possibility for disease.
List 3 factors that stagnate energy in the body
lifestyle influences, drugs, exposure to harmful substances such as radiation and smoking
Name 3 heavy metals that accumulate in the body. Where might you be exposed to these
Mercury, aluminum and lead
Aluminium - Foil, kitchen pans, anti-perspirants vaccines
Mercury -dental fillings vaccines
Which disease is Aluminium toxicity linked to
Alzheimers, it can damage neurons in the brain and is also a risk for breast cancer.
Define Oxidative stress
What causes oxidative stress
often occurs due to toxins stress, smoking, diets rich in refined sugar and processed diet
Explain what is meant by oxidative stress.
Oxidative stress is damage of a structure by a molecule containing oxygen. These Oxygen molecules are called free radicals. Free radicals are unstable and highly reactive molecules. They lack an electron in there atomic structure, which can be donated by antioxidants.
How does an antioxidant work
an antioxidant donates the missing electron in an unpaired electron
Name 2 antioxidants
Vitamin C, Beta carotene, vitamin E
What is the term given to a cell
a. with nucleus
b. without a nucleus
a. Eukaryotic
b. Prokaryotic
complete the following for both a Eukaryote and Prokaryote cell
Cell size
Nucleus
Membrane bound organelles
Cell Wall
Cell division
Example
Prokaryote
smaller to copy quicker
no nucleus (DNA/RNA in cytoplasm)
Absent
Present
Binary fission (rapid mitosis)
Bacteria
Eukaryote
larger
membrane bound nucleus contains DNA
Many organelles present
Only in plants and fungi
Involves Mitosis
Human/animal cells and Plants/fungi
What is the cell component from the following description
a. Basic Watery fluid
b. membrane surrounding the cell
a. cytosol
b. cell membrane
Describe the following:
a. Organelles
b. Cytoplasm
a. small specialised structures within the cell.
b. cell content excluding the nucleus but including cytosol and organelles)
Where do we find the phospholipid Bilayer
In the cell membrane
Why is the cell membrane semi-permeable
to separate the cells internal and external environment
Explain the terms:
a. hydrophobic
b. hydrophillic
a. Hydrophobic - lipid tails face inwards as they are water hating
b. Hydrophilic - water loving phosphate heads are on the outside
List 3 functions of transmembrane proteins
Transport of substances in/out of cells: this includes the movement of charged molecules such as hydrogen and larger molecules such as glucose
Immunological identity - helps our immune cells recognise our own cells (this stops our white blood cells from attacking our body cells)
Receptors - recognition sites for hormones etc
State the name of a molecule with an electrical charge
Hydrogen H+
Sodium Na +
Potassium +
Name one type of fat found in the cell membrane
Cholesterol
Describe the difference between tight junctions and gap junctions. where do we find each.
Tight junctions are tightly packed cells transmembrane proteins fuse cells together and seal off passageways to prevent leaking. (found in stomach, intestines bladder
Gap junctions are small fluid filled tunnels between neighboring cells e.g nerves
Briefly explain the role of the nucleus
The nucleus is a structure that contains the body’s genetic information in the form of DNA.
What do the following stand for:
DNA
RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (a self replicating material present in living organisms carrying genetic information)
Ribonucleic Acid (essential for protein synthesis)
What is the main function of the nuclear pore
for movement of substances in and out of the nucleus
Name the following cell component and list two functions
A network of protein filaments that extends through the cytosol, It is formed by microtubules and microfilaments’
Cytoskeleton
Generate cell movement - enable white blood cells to migrate to site of injury. In muscle cells the are the organelles that enable muscle contraction
Give the cell is physical support and shape
Cell division - they move chromosomes apart
Explain the specific role of ‘Mitochondria’.
They are the cells powerhouses as they generate ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) ATP is the energy currency for body cells.
What shape are mitochondria?
Bean shaped
Which body cells contain the most mitochondria?
Heart and muscle cells
Which type of cell respiration is mainly used by mitochondria
Aerobic respiration
Complete the following chemical reaction:
——————— + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + ——————– + ————————
Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + Water + ATP
What is the most important role of ‘Ribosomes’
To synthesis proteins
Explain the KEY difference between ‘mobile’ and ‘stationary’ ribosomes.
Free Ribosomes make proteins for use inside the cell. Stationary make proteins for use outside of the cell
Describe the role of ‘Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum’.
Synthesises and transports proteins
Describe the role of ‘smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum’.
Synthesises lipids and steroid hormones e.g oestrogen
Explain the role of the ‘Golgi Apparatus’ within the cell.
Golgi, modifies, sorts packages and transports proteins received from the rough ER
Describe the structure of the cell membrane
It is a phospholipid Bilayer that is flexible and semipermeable
How do ‘Lysosomes’ contribute to the cell?
Lysosomes recycle worn out organelles they engulf and digest them and the components are returned to the cytosol for re-use. They are also used to digest foreign cells.
Define ‘Chromosomes’
Are threadlike structures of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
How many chromosomes are found in somatic cells?
46
Which sex defines’ XY’ on the 23rd pair of chromosomes
XY - Male
XX - Female
What is the main role of ‘genes’
They act as instructions to make proteins.
Holds the information to build and maintain cells and pass on generic traits to offspring
Describe what happens during?
a. Transcription
b. Translation
a. Transcription - a copy of one gene is made into mRNA. This travels out of the nucleus to a ribosome.
b. The ribosome reads the code and produces a chain of amino acids to form the required protein
Explain what is meant by ‘Mutation’.
Describes a change in the genetic information (DNA Sequence)
Name TWO mutagenic agents.
Radiation, smoking vaccines chemotherapy
What is the difference between ‘somatic cells’ and ‘gametes’?
Somatic cells are normal cells and reproduce via mitosis to create 2 identical cells to the mother cell through 1 division. It is used for growth and repair.
Gametes are sex cells and reproduce via meiosis to create 4 non identical cells through 2 divisions.
What is a zygote
Fusion of a male and female gamete (fertilisation)
How does a zygote develop into an embryo
The Zygote will undergo mitosis and then develops into an embryo
Describe as many differences as possible between ‘Mitosis’ and ‘Meiosis’.
Mitosis
1 division
2 daughter cells
46 chromosomes
Diploid
Identical cells
End results 2 new identical diploid body cells
Used for growth and repair
Meiosis
2 divisions
4 daughter cells
23 Chromosomes
Haploid cells
Non identical
End results 4 unique haploid reproductive cells
Used for reporduction making eggs and sperm ( gametes)
Are daughter cells from Meiosis identical?
No
- What are the end results of ‘Mitosis’ and ‘Meiosis’?
Mitosis - 2 identical diploid body cells
Meiosis - 4 unique haploid reproductive cells
Can mutations in somatic cells be inherited
No
Name TWO key differences between ‘Active’ and ‘Passive’ Transport
Active transport goes from low to high concentration (up concentration gradient) using energy (ATP)
Passive transport goes from high to low concentration (down concentration gradient) doesn’t use energy
List and explain THREE types of passive transport and give ONE example of each.
Diffusion - movement of smaller substances down the concentration gradient e.g gases oxygen
Osmosis - movement of water down the concentration gradient
Facilitated diffusion - movement of larger substances such as Glucose and H+ down the concentration gradient with the aid of transmembrane proteins.
List and explain THREE types of active transport and give ONE example of each.
Pumps - e.g sodium potassium pump
movement of molecules up the concentration gradient using protein pump. Used for H+ K+ and Na+
Na+ - K+ sodium potassium pump is important for nerves.
Endocytosis - particles are engulfed by the cell either by
Phagocytosis -cell eating or Pinocytosis cell drinking
Exocytosis - Removal of waste from the cell. The material fuses with the cell membrane before being expelled.
Explain how the sodium-potassium pump works.
Which type of transport will be needed to move glucose into a cell
Facilitated diffusion/Passive
Explain the following terms:
a. Endocytosis
b. Phagocytosis
c. Pinocytosis
d. Exocytosis
a. particles are engulfed by the cell through cell membrane extensions
b. Cell eating
c. cell drinking
d. removal of waste from the cell
List FOUR types of body tissues.
Connective Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Fill in the gaps:
Epithelial tissue consists of _____________ packed cells arranged in _______________ sheets in either single or multiple layers. Divided into ________________and _________________, epithelial tissue provides a _________________ barrier for protection and _______________ of substances
tightly
continuous
covering
Glandular
Selective
Secretion
Name TWO areas where you will find epithelial tissue.
blood vessels, heart, lungs, reproductive organs, genito urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract (GIT) skin and eyes
Describe the difference between ‘exocrine’ and ‘endocrine glands’.
Exocrine glands - secrete products into ducts e.g saliva, milk ducts sweat glands,
Endocrine glands - Enter interstitial fluid and then diffuse into the blood. These glands produce hormones
3 Name THREE locations where connective tissue is located
Blood cartilage and bone
List the TWO basic elements that make up connective tissue.
Extracellular matrix and cells that are widely spaced apart
- Describe and compare FOUR characteristics of each of the following?
a. Collagen fibres
b. Elastic fibres
Collagen fibres -
Made from protein collagen
Strong fibres
found especially in bone ligaments and tendons
Occur in parallel bundles for extra strength
Elastin Fibres
Made from the protein Elastin. Surrounded by Glycoprotein for extra strength
Small in diameter than collagen fibres
Strong and stretchy to allow to return to original shape
In skin blood vessel walls, and lung tissue.
What connective tissue cell am I:
a. Store triglycerides b. Synthesise and secrete antibodies for defence c. Phagocytose debris and pathogens
d. Secrete protein fibres to make collagen, elastin and matrix. Active in repair and healing
e. release inflammatory chemicals
a. adipocytes
b. Lympocytes
c. Macrophages
d. Fibroblasts
e. Mast cells
List 5 functions of connective tissue
structural framework (bone and cartilage)
Transport nutrients and wastes (blood)
Protection for vital organs (bone cartilage and adipose.
Support and interconnection - Tendons ligaments etc
Insulation (adipose tissue)
Energy store
Production of blood and lymphatic cells (adipose tissue, bone marrow)
Defence and repair (blood and lymph)
Name FOUR types of membranes in the body?
Serous - double layered membrane fluid between e.g lungs
Mucus - digestive system genito urinary system, respiratory system.
synovial - joints, shoulder hip
cutaneous - skin
What is the difference between synovial and other types of membrane?
- What is the difference between synovial and other types of membrane?
Which membrane is associate with Skin
Cutaneous
- Complete the following:
The mucous membrane lines digestive, respiratory and __________________ tracts. It secretes ____________________ necessary for ______________________ and is the site for absorption. The epithelial layer contains _____________________ cells that produce and secrete ____________________which protects the lining membrane from mechanical and_____________________ injury/drying. It also ______________________ foreign particles in the ______________________ tract.
genitourinary tracts.
enzymes
digestion
Goblet cells
chemical
traps
respiratory tract
Does a serous membrane line a body cavity that opens to the exterior?
Serous membrane does not line cavities that open to the exterior
Name three areas where serous membrane can be found?
Pericardium - around the heart
Pleura - around the lungs
Peritoneum - lining abdominal cavity and surrounding abdominal organs.
Name the two layers of a serous membrane
Parietal layer - outer layer
Visceral -inner layer
What is main function of serous fluid?
it allows an organ to glide freely within the cavity without friction.
- Complete the following:
Synovial membranes line ____________________ of freely moveable joints. It consists of synviocytes that secrete _______________________ which nourishes the moveable joint cavities which it lines. It also surrounds ____________________that could be injured by _________________ against bones.
Cavities
synovial fluid
tendons
rubbing
Name the type of gland that secretes products into it’s ducts.
Exocrine Glands
Explain the role of goblet cells
secrete mucus - which protects the cell from mechanical/chemical damage e.g stomach
Traps foreign particles in the respiratory tract.
